Feridun Cemal Erkin TURKISH DIPLOMAT POLITICIAN AUTOGRAPH VERY RARE PHOTO For Sale

Feridun Cemal Erkin TURKISH DIPLOMAT POLITICIAN AUTOGRAPH VERY RARE PHOTO SIGNED
Feridun Cemal Erkin was a Turkish diplomat and politician. He was the minister of foreign affairs between 1962 and 1965. He served as the ambassador of Turkey in various countries, including Italy, the United States of America, Spain, France and the United Kingdom.


Feridun Cemal Erkin (1899–1980) was a Turkish diplomat and politician. He was the minister of foreign affairs between 1962 and 1965. He served as the ambassador of Turkey in various countries, including Italy, the United States of America, Spain, France and the United Kingdom.
Early life and educationErkin was born in İstanbul in 1899.[1] He graduated from Galatasaray High School in 1920.[1] He received a degree in law from the University of Paris in 1925.[1] Between 1916 and 1918 he completed his military service.[1]
Career
Erkin (left) with Walter Scheel (middle), future President of West Germany in 1964Erkin worked as a deputy accountant in İstanbul public administration in 1920.[1] He was the chief secretary of the population exchange commission in 1926.[1] He was appointed to his first diplomatic post in 1928 as the first secretary in the Turkish embassy in London.[1] After serving at the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs in various capacities he was named as the envoy extraordinary in the Turkish embassy in Berlin 1934.[1] Erkin became consul general in Berlin in 1938.[1] During World War II he headed a commission of the Republic of Turkey which was formed to assist Greece when it was attacked by the Nazi forces[2] and was the undersecretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.[3]Erkin was named as the ambassador of Turkey to Italy in 1947.[4] He served in the post for one year and became the ambassador of Turkey to the United States in 1948.[4] Erkin's tenure ended in 1955 when he was appointed as ambassador of Turkey to Spain.[4] Next he was named as the ambassador of Turkey to France in 1957 which he held until 1960.[4] He served as the ambassador of Turkey to the United Kingdom between 1960 and 1962.[4]Erkin was appointed minister of foreign affairs on 1 April 1962,[1] replacing Selim Sarper in the post.[2] Erkin was in office until 20 February 1965.[1] One of the most significant visits of him as the minister of foreign affairs was to the Soviet Union in November 1964.[5] Because it was the first visit of a Turkish minister to the Soviet Union since 1940.[5] Karpat served in the cabinets led by Prime Minister İsmet İnönü.[2][4]Then Karpat was elected as a deputy from the Republican People's Party representing Ordu.[4] He left the party and joined the Justice Party.[2] In 1970 Erkin was elected as senator.[4]
DeathErkin died on 21 June 1980.[6]
Work and legacyIn 1968 Erkin published a book, Türk Sovyet İlişkileri ve Boğazlar Meselesi, (Turkish: Turkey Soviet Union Relations and the Straits Question).[3] His memoir was published by the Turkish Historical Society in 1994 with the title Dışişlerinde 34 Yıl: Anılar-Yorumlar (Turkish: 34 Years at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Memories–comments).[7]
AwardsErkin was awarded by Greece the Order of the Phoenix due to his activities as the head of Turkish aid commission during World War II.[2] Sayın Feridun Cemal Erkin'in Özgeçmişi
Feridun Cemal Erkin Mehmet Cemal beyin oğludur. 1899 senesinde İstanbul'da doğmuştur. 1920 de Galatasaray Lisesinden ve 1925 de Paris Hukuk Fakültesinden mezun olmuştur. 1916-1918 tarihlerinde askerlik hizmetini tamamlamış, 1920 de İstanbul Düyunu Umumiye İdaresi Muhasebeci yardımcısı, 1926 da Muhtelif Mübadele Komisyonu Türk görüşme heyeti Başkatibi olarak görev yapmış, 1928 de Londra Büyükelçiliğinde Başkatip, 1929 da Siyasi Müşavirlik Mümeyyizi, 1932 de I. Daire 3. Şubede görev yapmış, 1934 de Berlin Büyükelçiliğinde Orta Elçi, Büyükelçilik Müsteşarı, 1937 de İktisat ve Ticaret Dairesi Şefi, 1938 de Berlin Başkonsolosu, 1939 da I. Daire Genel Müdürü olarak görev yapmıştır.1942 de Umumi Katip 1. Muavinliğine, 1945 de Büyükelçi, Umumi Katipliğe tayin edilmiştir. 1947 de Roma Büyükelçisi, 1948 de Vaşington Büyükelçisi, 1955 de Madrid Büyükelçisi, 1957 de Paris Büyükelçisi, 1960 da Yüksek Müşavir ve aynı yıl Londra Büyükelçisi olmuştur.01.04.1962 den 20.02.1965 tarihine kadar Dışişleri Bakanlığı görevinde bulunmuştur.Bildiği yabancı diller : Fransızca ve İngilizce
BakanlıkMerkez TeşkilatımızYurtdışındaki TemsilciliklerimizYurtiçi TemsilciliklerimizDışişleri Bakanları ListesiTürkiye Cumhuriyeti Dışişleri Bakanlığı TarihçesiŞehit DiplomatlarımızPersonelGüncel DuyurularSAMMevzuatDiplomasi AkademisiDMEDDSuna Çokgür Ilıcak Sanat GalerisiBilgi Edinme ve Diğer BaşvurularKoronavirüs Salgını Sürecindeki Rol Ve VizyonumuzBilgi Güvenliği Yönetim Sistemi PolitikasıDışişleri Bakanlığı Stratejik PlanıPerformans ProgramlarıMali TablolarMali Durum Raporlarıİdare Faaliyet Raporları Bakan YardımcılarıBurak AkçaparYasin Ekrem SerimMehmet Kemal BozayAhmet Yıldız Dış PolitikaGenel GörünümTemel Dış Politika KonularıBölgelerUluslararası Kuruluşlar ve İlişkilerimizYurtdışı Tanıtım ve Kültür İşleriDış Politika KronolojisiSorularla Dış PolitikaTürkiye Yüzyılı'nda Türk Dış Politikası ProtokolProtokol KonsoloslukKonsolosluk İşlemleriVize Genel BilgileriVize UygulamalarıEmlak KonularıTatil Aydınlatma ProjesiYurt Dışı Seyahat DuyurularıTürkiye'deki Yabancı TemsilciliklerYurt Dışına Seyahat Edeceklere Konsolosluk RehberiSeyahat SağlığıVatandaşlarımızın Schengen Alanına Vizesiz Seyahati, Geri Kabul Anlaşması ve Göç Eylem Planı AçıklamalarGüncel GelişmelerGüncel AçıklamalarBasın ToplantılarıAçıklamalarBakanlık DuyurularıBasın Bilgi Notları KaynaklarCumhurbaşkanlarımızTürk Hükümetleri KronolojisiAnayasaUluslararası AndlaşmalarKurucu AndlaşmalarDış İlişkiler TerminolojisiYayınlar Feridun Cemal Erkin 1899 senesinde İstanbul'da doğdu. 1920'de Galatasaray Lisesi'nden ve 1925'de Paris Hukuk Fakültesi'nden mezun oldu. 1916-1918 tarihlerinde askerlik hizmetini tamamladı. 1920'de İstanbul Düyunu Umumiye İdaresi muhasebeci yardımcısı, 1926'da Muhtelit Mübadele Komisyonu Türk Görüşme Heyeti başkatibi olarak görev yaptı. 1928'de Londra Büyükelçiliğinde başkatip, 1929'da siyasi müşavirlik mümeyyizi, olarak görev yapan Erkin, 1934'de Berlin büyükelçiliğinde orta elçilik, büyükelçilik müsteşarlığı, 1937'de iktisat ve ticaret dairesi şefliği, 1938'de Berlin başkonsolosluğu, 1939'da I. daire genel müdürlüğü yaptı. 1942'de umumi katip 1. muavinliğine, 1945'de büyükelçi umumi katipliğe tayin edildi. 1955'de Madrid büyükelçisi, 1957'de Paris büyükelçisi, 1960'da yüksek müşavir ve ayni yıl Londra büyükelçisi oldu. Feridun Cemal Erkin 1962'den 1965'e kadar Dışişleri Bakanı olarak hükümette görev aldı. 12 eylül 1963 tarihinde Avrupa Birliği'ne girdiğimiz Ankara anlaşmasını imzaladı. 1965 yılında Ordu milletvekili olarak Meclise girdi. Feridun Cemal Erkin 21 Haziran 1980'de vefat etti.BibliyografyaLes Relations Turco-Soviétiques et La Question des Détroits (1968), Türk Sovyet ilişkileri ve Boğazlar meselesi (1968), Türkiye'nin Savaşa Katılması İçin Kahire'de Yapılan Müzakereler (1979), Dışişlerinde 34 Yıl (3 Cilt -1986)
İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil (1908, Istanbul – 30 December 1993, Ankara, Turkey) was a Turkish politician who served as Acting President of Turkey in 1980, from the Justice Party (Turkish: Adalet Partisi). He also served as Minister of Foreign Affairs three times in the 1960s and 1970s.
Background and personal lifeÇağlayangil was born in Istanbul in 1908. He graduated from Saint-Joseph High School.[1] Then he entered the School of Law at Istanbul University and graduated in 1932.[2] [unreliable source?]He was married to Firuzende Çağlayangil and had a daughter named Fatma Itir Çağlayangil.
CareerAfter completing his studies he became a civil servant and was in charge of the arrangements for the trial and the hanging of Seyit Riza and several Kurdish leaders of the Dersim Rebellion.[3][4] Çağlayangil was Governor of Bursa Province from 1954 to 1960.[5]He served as Minister of Labour and Social Security in the 29th government of Turkey, a caretaker government prior to the 1965 general election. After the election he served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey from 1965 to 1971, until the 1971 coup.He was Minister of Foreign Affairs again in 1975–1977, and 1977–1978. Çağlayangil was Chairman of the Senate from November 7, 1979 to September 12, 1980 (the 1980 coup). In this capacity he was Acting President of Turkey[6] after Fahri Korutürk's term expired on 6 April 1980. He was a member of the Justice Party (Turkish: Adalet Partisi). Ankara (/ˈæŋkərə/ ANG-kər-ə, US also /ˈɑːŋ-/ AHNG-kər-ə; Turkish: [ˈaŋkaɾa] ⓘ),[b] historically known as Ancyra[c] and Angora,[14][d] is the capital of Turkey. Located in the central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5.1 million in its urban center and 5.8 million in Ankara Province,[5][4] making it Turkey's second-largest city after Istanbul, but first by the urban area (4,130 km2).Serving as the capital of the ancient Celtic state of Galatia (280–64 BC), and later of the Roman province with the same name (25 BC–7th century), the city is very old, with various Hattian, Hittite, Lydian, Phrygian, Galatian, Greek, Persian, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman archeological sites. The Ottomans made the city the capital first of the Anatolia Eyalet (1393 – late 15th century) and then the Angora Eyalet (1827–1864) and the Angora Vilayet (1867–1922). The historical center of Ankara is a rocky hill rising 150 m (500 ft) over the left bank of the Ankara River, a tributary of the Sakarya River. The hill remains crowned by the ruins of Ankara Castle. Although few of its outworks have survived, there are well-preserved examples of Roman and Ottoman architecture throughout the city, the most remarkable being the 20 BC Temple of Augustus and Rome that boasts the Monumentum Ancyranum, the inscription recording the Res Gestae Divi Augusti.[16]On 23 April 1920, the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish War of Independence. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role as the former Turkish capital Istanbul following the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city located at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat (the source of mohair), and the Angora cat. The area is also known for its pears, honey and Muscat grapes. Although situated in one of the driest regions of Turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation (except for the forested areas on the southern periphery), Ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at 72 square meters (775 square feet) per head.[17]
Etymology
Seated Woman of Çatalhöyük on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, AnkaraThe orthography of the name Ankara[18] has varied over the ages. It has been identified with the Hittite cult center Ankuwaš,[19][20] although this remains a matter of debate.[21] In classical antiquity and during the medieval period, the city was known as Ánkyra (Ἄγκυρα, lit "anchor") in Greek and Ancyra in Latin; the Galatian Celtic name was probably a similar variant. Following its annexation by the Seljuk Turks in 1073, the city became known in many European languages as Angora; it was also known in Ottoman Turkish as Engürü (انگورو).[22][16] The form "Angora" is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals, and in the names of several locations in the US (see Angora).
History
Main article: History of Ankara
For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Ankara.

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Alaca Höyük bronze standard on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, AnkaraThe region's history can be traced back to the Bronze Age Hattic civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the Hittites, in the 10th century BC by the Phrygians, and later by the Lydians, Persians, Greeks, Galatians, Romans, Byzantines, and Turks (the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm, the Ottoman Empire and finally republican Turkey).
Ancient history
Alaca Höyük bronze standards is a pre-Hittite tomb dating to the third millennium BC. It is considered the symbol of the city still today.The oldest settlements in and around the city center of Ankara belonged to the Hattic civilization which existed during the Bronze Age and was gradually absorbed c. 2000 – 1700 BC by the Indo-European Hittites. The city grew significantly in size and importance under the Phrygians starting around 1000 BC, and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from Gordion, (the capital of Phrygia), after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time. In Phrygian tradition, King Midas was venerated as the founder of Ancyra, but Pausanias mentions that the city was actually far older, which accords with present archeological knowledge.[23]Phrygian rule was succeeded first by Lydian and later by Persian rule, though the strongly Phrygian character of the peasantry remained, as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later Roman period. Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of Alexander the Great who conquered the city in 333 BC. Alexander came from Gordion to Ankara and stayed in the city for a short period. After his death at Babylon in 323 BC and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals, Ankara, and its environs fell into the share of Antigonus.Another important expansion took place under the Greeks of Pontos who came there around 300 BC and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the Black Sea ports and Crimea to the north; Assyria, Cyprus, and Lebanon to the south; and Georgia, Armenia and Persia to the east.[citation needed] By that time[citation needed] the city also took its name Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra, meaning anchor in Greek) which, in slightly modified form, provides the modern name of Ankara.
Celtic history
The Dying Galatian was a famous statue commissioned some time between 230 and 220 BC by King Attalos I of Pergamon to honor his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia. Roman marble copy of a Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BC, at the Capitoline Museums, Rome.In 278 BC, the city, along with the rest of central Anatolia, was occupied by a Celtic group, the Galatians, who were the first to make Ankara one of their main tribal centers, the headquarters of the Tectosages tribe.[24] Other centers were Pessinus, today's Ballıhisar, for the Trocmi tribe, and Tavium, to the east of Ankara, for the Tolistobogii tribe. The city was then known as Ancyra. The Celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers; a warrior aristocracy which ruled over Phrygian-speaking peasants. However, the Celtic language continued to be spoken in Galatia for many centuries. At the end of the 4th century, St. Jerome, a native of Dalmatia, observed that the language spoken around Ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the Roman world near Trier.
Roman history
Marble head of a Roman woman on display at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, AnkaraThe city was subsequently passed under the control of the Roman Empire. In 25 BC, Emperor Augustus raised it to the status of a polis and made it the capital city of the Roman province of Galatia.[25] Ankara is famous for the Monumentum Ancyranum (Temple of Augustus and Rome) which contains the official record of the Acts of Augustus, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple. The ruins of Ancyra still furnish today valuable bas-reliefs, inscriptions and other architectural fragments. Two other Galatian tribal centers, Tavium near Yozgat, and Pessinus (Balhisar) to the west, near Sivrihisar, continued to be reasonably important settlements in the Roman period, but it was Ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis.
The Res Gestae Divi Augusti is the self-laudatory autobiography completed in 13 AD, just before his death, by the first Roman emperor Augustus. Most of the text is preserved on the walls of the Monumentum Ancyranum.
The Roman Baths of Ankara were constructed by the Roman emperor Caracalla (212–217) in honor of Asclepios, the God of Medicine, and built around three principal rooms: the caldarium (hot bath), the tepidarium (warm bath) and the frigidarium (cold bath) in a typically laid-out 80-by-120-meter (260-by-390-foot) classical complex.An estimated 200,000 people lived in Ancyra in good times during the Roman Empire, a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the Roman Empire until the early 20th century. The small Ankara River ran through the center of the Roman town. It has now been covered and diverted, but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods. Çankaya, the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center, stood well outside the Roman city, but may have been a summer resort. In the 19th century, the remains of at least one Roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where the Çankaya Presidential Residence stands today. To the west, the Roman city extended until the area of the Gençlik Park and Railway Station, while on the southern side of the hill, it may have extended downward as far as the site presently occupied by Hacettepe University. It was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the Roman towns of Gaul or Britannia.[citation needed]Ancyra's importance rested on the fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern Anatolia running north–south and east–west intersected, giving it major strategic importance for Rome's eastern frontier.[25] The great imperial road running east passed through Ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way. They were not the only ones to use the Roman highway network, which was equally convenient for invaders. In the second half of the 3rd century, Ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the Goths coming from the west (who rode far into the heart of Cappadocia, taking slaves and pillaging) and later by the Arabs. For about a decade, the town was one of the western outposts of one of Palmyrean empress Zenobia in the Syrian Desert, who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the Roman Empire to set up a short-lived state of her own.The town was reincorporated into the Roman Empire under Emperor Aurelian in 272. The tetrarchy, a system of multiple (up to four) emperors introduced by Diocletian (284–305), seems to have engaged in a substantial program of rebuilding and of road construction from Ancyra westwards to Germe and Dorylaeum (now Eskişehir).In its heyday, Roman Ancyra was a large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital, where a high official ruled from the city's Praetorium, a large administrative palace or office. During the 3rd century, life in Ancyra, as in other Anatolian towns, seems to have become somewhat militarized in response to the invasions and instability of the town.
Byzantine historyThe city is well known during the 4th century as a center of Christian activity (see also below), due to frequent imperial visits, and through the letters of the pagan scholar Libanius.[25] Bishop Marcellus of Ancyra and Basil of Ancyra were active in the theological controversies of their day, and the city was the site of no fewer than three church synods in 314, 358 and 375, the latter two in favor of Arianism.[25]The city was visited by Emperor Constans I (r. 337–350) in 347 and 350, Julian (r. 361–363) during his Persian campaign in 362, and Julian's successor Jovian (r. 363–364) in winter 363/364 (he entered his consulship while in the city). After Jovian's death soon after, Valentinian I (r. 364–375) was acclaimed emperor at Ancyra, and in the next year his brother Valens (r. 364–378) used Ancyra as his base against the usurper Procopius.[25] When the province of Galatia was divided sometime in 396/99, Ancyra remained the civil capital of Galatia I, as well as its ecclesiastical center (metropolitan see).[25] Emperor Arcadius (r. 383–408) frequently used the city as his summer residence, and some information about the ecclesiastical affairs of the city during the early 5th century is found in the works of Palladius of Galatia and Nilus of Ancyra.[25]In 479, the rebel Marcian attacked the city, without being able to capture it.[25] In 610/11, Comentiolus, brother of Emperor Phocas (r. 602–610), launched his own unsuccessful rebellion in the city against Heraclius (r. 610–641).[25] Ten years later, in 620 or more likely 622, it was captured by the Sassanid Persians during the Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628. Although the city returned to Byzantine hands after the end of the war, the Persian presence left traces in the city's archeology, and likely began the process of its transformation from a late antique city to a medieval fortified settlement.[25]
The Column of Julian (362) was erected in honor of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate's visit to Ancyra.In 654, the city, also known in Arabic sources as Qalat as-Salasil ("fortress of the chains"),[26] was captured for the first time by the Arabs of the Rashidun Caliphate, under Muawiyah, the future founder of the Umayyad Caliphate.[25] At about the same time, the themes were established in Anatolia, and Ancyra became capital of the Opsician Theme, which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under Emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775); Ancyra then became the capital of the new Bucellarian Theme.[25] The city was captured at least temporarily by the Umayyad prince Maslama ibn Hisham in 739/40, the last of the Umayyads' territorial gains from the Byzantine Empire.[27] Ancyra was attacked without success by Abbasid forces in 776 and in 798/99. In 805, Emperor Nikephoros I (r. 802–811) strengthened its fortifications, a fact which probably saved it from sack during the large-scale invasion of Anatolia by Caliph Harun al-Rashid in the next year.[25] Arab sources report that Harun and his successor al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833) took the city, but this information is later invention. In 838, however, during the Amorium campaign, the armies of Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842) converged and met at the city; abandoned by its inhabitants, Ancara was razed to the ground, before the Arab armies went on to besiege and destroy Amorium reaching as far as Smyrna.[25] In 859, Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867) came to the city during a campaign against the Arabs, and ordered its fortifications restored.[25] In 872, the city was menaced, but not taken, by the Paulicians under Chrysocheir.[25] The last Arab raid to reach the city was undertaken in 931, by the Abbasid governor of Tarsus, Thamal al-Dulafi, but the city again was not captured.[25]
Ecclesiastical history
St. Theodotus of AncyraEarly Christian martyrs of Ancyra, about whom little is known, included Proklos and Hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of Kallippi, and suffered repression under the emperor Trajan (98–117). In the 280s we hear of Philumenos, a Christian corn merchant from southern Anatolia, being captured and martyred in Ankara, and Eustathius.As in other Roman towns, the reign of Diocletian marked the culmination of the persecution of the Christians. In 303, Ancyra was one of the towns where the co-emperors Diocletian and his deputy Galerius launched their anti-Christian persecution. In Ancyra, their first target was the 38-year-old Bishop of the town, whose name was Clement. Clement's life describes how he was taken to Rome, then sent back, and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he, and his brother, and various companions were put to death. The remains of the church of St. Clement can be found today in a building just off Işıklar Caddesi in the Ulus district. Quite possibly this marks the site where Clement was originally buried. Four years later, a doctor of the town named Plato and his brother Antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under Galerius. Theodotus of Ancyra is also venerated as a saint.However, the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 Ancyra was the center of an important council of the early church;[28] its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the Sacrament of Penance.[28] The synod also considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the Christian Church after the persecutions, and in particular the treatment of lapsi—Christians who had given in to forced paganism (sacrifices) to avoid martyrdom during these persecutions.[28]Though paganism was probably tottering in Ancyra in Clement's day, it may still have been the majority religion. Twenty years later, Christianity and monotheism had taken its place. Ancyra quickly turned into a Christian city, with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes. The town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead. During the middle of the 4th century, Ancyra was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of Christ, and a form of Arianism seems to have originated there.[29]In 362–363, Emperor Julian passed through Ancyra on his way to an ill-fated campaign against the Persians, and according to Christian sources, engaged in a persecution of various holy men.[30] The stone base for a statue, with an inscription describing Julian as "Lord of the whole world from the British Ocean to the barbarian nations", can still be seen, built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of Ankara Castle. The Column of Julian which was erected in honor of the emperor's visit to the city in 362 still stands today. In 375, Arian bishops met at Ancyra and deposed several bishops, among them St. Gregory of Nyssa.In the late 4th century, Ancyra became something of an imperial holiday resort. After Constantinople became the East Roman capital, emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the Bosporus to the drier mountain atmosphere of Ancyra. Theodosius II (408–450) kept his court in Ancyra in the summers. Laws issued in Ancyra testify to the time they spent there.
Ottoman houses in Hamamönü districtThe Metropolis of Ancyra continued to be a residential see of the Eastern Orthodox Church until the 20th century, with about 40,000 faithful, mostly Turkish-speaking, but that situation ended as a result of the 1923 Convention Concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations. The earlier Armenian genocide put an end to the residential eparchy of Ancyra of the Armenian Catholic Church, which had been established in 1850.[31][32] It is also a titular metropolis of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.Both the Ancient Byzantine Metropolitan archbishopric and the 'modern' Armenian eparchy are now listed by the Catholic Church as titular sees,[33] with separate apostolic successions.
Seljuk and Ottoman history
President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (center) and Prime Minister İsmet İnönü (left) leaving the Grand National Assembly of Turkey during the 7th anniversary celebrations of the Turkish Republic in 1930
A view of the old general directorate building of Ziraat Bank. It was designed by Istanbul-born Italian Levantine architect Giulio Mongeri and built between 1926 and 1929.After the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Seljuk Turks overran much of Anatolia. By 1073, the Turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of Ancyra, and the city was captured shortly after, at the latest by the time of the rebellion of Nikephoros Melissenos in 1081.[25] In 1101, when the Crusade under Raymond IV of Toulouse arrived, the city had been under Danishmend control for some time. The Crusaders captured the city, and handed it over to the Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118).[25] Byzantine rule did not last long, and the city was captured by the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum at some unknown point; in 1127, it returned to Danishmend control until 1143, when the Seljuks of Rum retook it.[25]After the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243, in which the Mongols defeated the Seljuks, most of Anatolia became part of the dominion of the Mongols. Taking advantage of Seljuk decline, a semi-religious cast of craftsmen and trade people named Ahiler chose Angora as their independent city-state in 1290. Orhan, the second Bey of the Ottoman Empire, captured the city in 1356. Timur defeated Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara in 1402 and took the city, but in 1403 Angora was again under Ottoman control.The Levant Company maintained a factory in the town from 1639 to 1768.[16] In the 19th century, its population was estimated at 20,000 to 60,000.[22] It was sacked by Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha in 1832.[16]From 1867 to 1922, the city served as the capital of the Angora Vilayet, which included most of ancient Galatia.Prior to World War I, the town had a British consulate and a population of around 28,000, roughly 1⁄3 of whom were Christian.[16]
Turkish republican capital
Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Ankara, is visited by large crowds every year during national holidays such as Republic Day on 29 October.Following the Ottoman defeat in World War I, the Ottoman capital Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and much of Anatolia was occupied by the Allies, who planned to share these lands between Armenia, France, Greece, Italy and the United Kingdom, leaving for the Turks the core piece of land in central Anatolia. In response, the leader of the Turkish nationalist movement, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Angora in 1920. After the Turkish War of Independence was won and the Treaty of Sèvres was superseded by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), the Turkish nationalists replaced the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. A few days earlier, Angora had officially replaced Constantinople as the new Turkish capital city, on 13 October 1923,[34] and Republican officials declared that the city's name is Ankara.[35]
The Presidential Library in Ankara is the largest library in Turkey, with a collection of over 4 million printed books[36] and over 120 million electronic editions[36] published in 134 languages.[36]After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called Ulus, and a new section, called Yenişehir. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered on Kızılay Square, has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises.Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was "a small town of no importance".[37] In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. After 1930, the city officially became known in Western languages as Ankara. By the late 1930s, the English name "Angora" was no longer in popular use.[38]
The Presidential Complex is located inside the Atatürk Forest Farm.Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked İzmir as Turkey's second-largest city, after Istanbul. Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while the population of Ankara Province reached 5,150,072 in 2015.[39]The Presidential Palace of Turkey is situated in Ankara. This building serves as the main residence of the president.
Geography
Soğuksu National ParkGeographically, Ankara is located in the middle of the Kızılırmak and Sakarya rivers, and the Sakarya River forms its border with Eskişehir in the west. Ankara shares its borders with Bolu and Çankırı in the north; Konya in the south and Kırıkkale in the east.[40]Ankara and its province are located in the Central Anatolia Region of Turkey. The Çubuk Brook flows through the city center of Ankara. It is connected in the western suburbs of the city to the Ankara River, which is a tributary of the Sakarya River.
Climate
Köppen map of Ankara Province and surrounding regions:[41] BSk
Csb
Dfb
DsbUnder the Köppen climate classification, Ankara has a cold semi-arid climate (BSk), transitioning to a humid continental climate (Dsb) in the northern half. Due to its elevation and inland location, Ankara has cold and snowy winters, and hot and dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn. The city lies in USDA Hardiness zone 7b, and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at 414 millimeters (16 in), nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout the year. Monthly mean temperatures range from 0.9 °C (33.6 °F) in January to 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) in July, with an annual mean of 12.6 °C (54.7 °F).[42]
Climate data for Ankara (Turkish State Meteorological Service Compound, Keçiören), 1991–2020, extremes 1927–2021
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 18.4
(65.1) 21.3
(70.3) 27.8
(82.0) 31.6
(88.9) 34.4
(93.9) 37.0
(98.6) 41.0
(105.8) 40.4
(104.7) 39.1
(102.4) 33.3
(91.9) 24.7
(76.5) 20.4
(68.7) 41.0
(105.8)
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 4.7
(40.5) 7.4
(45.3) 12.2
(54.0) 17.5
(63.5) 22.8
(73.0) 27.3
(81.1) 31.0
(87.8) 31.0
(87.8) 26.5
(79.7) 20.3
(68.5) 13.0
(55.4) 6.7
(44.1) 18.4
(65.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 0.9
(33.6) 2.7
(36.9) 6.7
(44.1) 11.5
(52.7) 16.5
(61.7) 20.6
(69.1) 24.2
(75.6) 24.3
(75.7) 19.6
(67.3) 13.9
(57.0) 7.3
(45.1) 2.8
(37.0) 12.6
(54.7)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) −2.2
(28.0) −1.2
(29.8) 1.9
(35.4) 6.0
(42.8) 10.5
(50.9) 14.1
(57.4) 17.2
(63.0) 17.4
(63.3) 13.1
(55.6) 8.4
(47.1) 2.7
(36.9) −0.3
(31.5) 7.3
(45.1)
Record low °C (°F) −24.9
(−12.8) −24.2
(−11.6) −19.2
(−2.6) −7.2
(19.0) −1.6
(29.1) 3.8
(38.8) 4.5
(40.1) 5.5
(41.9) −1.5
(29.3) −9.8
(14.4) −17.5
(0.5) −24.2
(−11.6) −24.9
(−12.8)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 38.6
(1.52) 36.6
(1.44) 46.9
(1.85) 44.5
(1.75) 51.0
(2.01) 40.2
(1.58) 14.8
(0.58) 14.6
(0.57) 17.9
(0.70) 33.4
(1.31) 31.9
(1.26) 43.2
(1.70) 413.6
(16.28)
Average precipitation days 13.60 12.67 13.87 13.40 14.53 11.47 4.60 5.10 5.50 9.23 8.93 14.00 126.9
Average relative humidity (%) 76.7 70.7 63.2 58.4 56.3 53.1 45.5 45.3 48.8 60.2 68.6 76.7 60.2
Mean monthly sunshine hours 68.2 101.7 148.8 189.0 238.7 279.0 328.6 316.2 264.0 195.3 129.0 74.4 2,332.9
Mean daily sunshine hours 2.2 3.6 4.8 6.3 7.7 9.3 10.6 10.2 8.8 6.3 4.3 2.4 6.4
Source 1: Turkish State Meteorological Service[42]
Source 2: NOAA (humidity, populationYear Pop. ±% p.a.
2007 4,466,756 —
2012 4,965,542 +2.14%
2017 5,445,026 +1.86%
2022 5,782,285 +1.21%
Source: TÜİK[44]
Ankara metropolitan areaAnkara had a population of 75,000 in 1927. There were 74,632 male residents and 48,882 female residents in Ankara according to the 1935 census.[45] As of 2022, the population of the Ankara Province was 5,782,285.[44] When Ankara became the capital of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, it was designated as a planned city for 500,000 future inhabitants. During the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, the city grew in a planned and orderly pace. However, from the 1950s onward, the city grew much faster than envisioned, because unemployment and poverty forced people to migrate from the countryside into the city to seek a better standard of living. As a result, many illegal houses called gecekondu were built around the city, causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of Ankara, as not enough planned housing could be built fast enough. Although precariously built, the vast majority of them have electricity, running water and modern household amenities.Nevertheless, many of these gecekondus have been replaced by huge public housing projects in the form of tower blocks such as Elvankent, Eryaman and Güzelkent; and also as mass housing compounds for military and civil service accommodation. Although many gecekondus still remain, they too are gradually being replaced by mass housing compounds, as empty land plots in the city of Ankara for new construction projects are becoming impossible to find.Çorum and Yozgat, which are located in Central Anatolia and whose population is decreasing, are the provinces with the highest net migration to Ankara.[46] About one third of the Central Anatolia population of 15,608,868 people resides in Ankara.The literacy rate in the whole province for people who are 15 years old or older is 98.18% according to 2020 TÜİK data. Ankara Province also has the highest percentage of tertiary education graduates in Turkey with 29.08% of the population having either an undergraduate, master's or doctor's degree.[47]
Economy and infrastructureAnkara has long been a productive agricultural region in Anatolia. In the Ottoman period, Ankara was well known for producing grain, cotton, and fruits.[48]The city has exported mohair (from the Angora goat) and Angora wool (from the Angora rabbit) internationally for centuries. In the 19th century, the city also exported substantial amounts of goat and cat skins, gum, wax, honey, berries, and madder root.[22] It was connected to Istanbul by railway before the First World War, continuing to export mohair, wool, berries, and grain.[16]The Central Anatolia Region is one of the primary locations of grape and wine production in Turkey, and Ankara is particularly famous for its Kalecik Karası and Muscat grapes; and its Kavaklıdere wine, which is produced in the Kavaklıdere neighborhood within the Çankaya district of the city. Ankara is also famous for its pears. Another renowned natural product of Ankara is its indigenous type of honey (Ankara Balı) which is known for its light color and is mostly produced by the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo in the Gazi district, and by other facilities in the Elmadağ, Çubuk and Beypazarı districts. Çubuk-1 and Çubuk-2 dams on the Çubuk Brook in Ankara were among the first dams constructed in the Turkish Republic.
Kızılay Square, in central Ankara, with the Emek Business Center (1959–1965), the first International Style mixed-use office tower and shopping center in Turkey[49][50]Ankara is the center of the state-owned and private Turkish defence and aerospace companies, where the industrial plants and headquarters of the Turkish Aerospace Industries, MKE, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, FNSS,[51] Nurol Makina,[52] and numerous other firms are located. Exports to foreign countries from these defense and aerospace firms have steadily increased in the past decades. The IDEF in Ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global arms industry. A number of the global automotive companies also have production facilities in Ankara, such as the German bus and truck manufacturer MAN SE.[53] Ankara hosts the OSTIM Industrial Zone, Turkey's largest industrial park.A large percentage of the complicated employment in Ankara is provided by the state institutions; such as the ministries, subministries, and other administrative bodies of the Turkish government. There are also many foreign citizens working as diplomats or clerks in the embassies of their respective countries.
Transportation
See also: Ankara Metro, Ankara Central Station, and Esenboğa International Airport
Ankara railway station is a hub for conventional trains.
The new ATG terminal is a hub for the high-speed rail (YHT) services.The Electricity, Gas, Bus General Directorate (EGO)[54] operates the Ankara Metro and other forms of public transportation. Ankara is served by a suburban rail named Başkentray (B1) and five Metro lines (A1, M1, M2, M3, M4) of the Ankara Metro with about 400,000 total daily commuters, while additional subway lines (A2 and M2a/b) are under construction. A 3.2 km (2.0 mi) long gondola lift with four stations connects the district of Şentepe to the Yenimahalle metro station.[55]The Ankara Central Station is a major rail hub in Turkey. The Turkish State Railways operates passenger train service from Ankara to other major cities, such as: Istanbul, Eskişehir, Balıkesir, Kütahya, İzmir, Kayseri, Adana, Kars, Elazığ, Malatya, Diyarbakır, Karabük, Zonguldak and Sivas. Commuter rail also runs between the stations of Sincan and Kayaş. On 13 March 2009, the new Yüksek Hızlı Tren (YHT) high-speed rail service began operation between Ankara and Eskişehir. On 23 August 2011, another YHT high-speed line commercially started its service between Ankara and Konya. On 25 July 2014, the Ankara–Istanbul high-speed line of YHT entered service.[56]Esenboğa International Airport, located in the north-east of the city, is Ankara's main airport.
Ankara public transportation statisticsThe average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in Ankara on a weekday is 71 minutes. 17% of public transit passengers, ride for more than two hours every day. The average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is sixteen minutes, while 28% of users wait for over twenty minutes on average every day. The average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is 9.9 km (6.2 mi), while 27% travel for over 12 km (7.5 mi) in a single direction.[57]
Esenboğa International Airport
Politics
See also: List of mayors of Ankara
Mansur Yavaş of the CHP is the Mayor of Ankara.Since 8 April 2019, the Mayor of Ankara is Mansur Yavaş from the Republican People's Party (CHP), who won the mayoral election in 2019 and 2024.Ankara is politically a triple battleground between the ruling conservative AK Party, the opposition Kemalist center-left Republican People's Party (CHP) and the nationalist far-right MHP. The province of Ankara is divided into 25 districts. Historically, the CHP's key and almost only political stronghold in Ankara lied within the central area of Çankaya, which is the city's most populous district. While the CHP has always gained between 60 and 70% of the vote in Çankaya since 2002, political support elsewhere throughout Ankara was minimal. The high population within Çankaya, as well as Yenimahalle to an extent, has allowed the CHP to take overall second place behind the AK Party in both local and general elections, with the MHP a close third, despite the fact that the MHP was politically stronger than the CHP in almost every other district. Overall, the AK Party enjoyed the most support throughout the city. The electorate of Ankara thus tended to vote in favor of the political right, far more so than the other main cities of Istanbul and İzmir. In retrospect, the 2013–14 protests against the AK Party government were particularly strong in Ankara, proving to be fatal on multiple occasions.[58]
Ankara district Municipalities
Local elections, 2024
CHP
16 / 25
AK Party
8 / 25
Independent
1 / 25The city suffered from a series of terrorist attacks in 2015 and 2016, most notably on 10 October 2015; 17 February 2016; 13 March 2016; and 15 July 2016.Melih Gökçek was the Metropolitan Mayor of Ankara between 1994 and 2017. Initially elected in the 1994 local elections, he was re-elected in 1999, 2004 and 2009. In the 2014 local elections, Gökçek stood for a fifth term. The MHP's metropolitan mayoral candidate for the 2009 local elections, Mansur Yavaş, stood as the CHP's candidate against Gökçek in 2014. In a heavily controversial election, Gökçek was declared the winner by just 1% ahead of Yavaş amid allegations of systematic electoral fraud. With the Supreme Electoral Council and courts rejecting his appeals, Yavaş declared his intention to take the irregularities to the European Court of Human Rights. Although Gökçek was inaugurated for a fifth term, most election observers believe[59] that Yavaş was the winner of the election.[60][61][62][63][64] Gökçek resigned on 28 October 2017 and was replaced by the former mayor of Sincan district, Mustafa Tuna; who was succeeded by Mansur Yavaş of the CHP, the current Mayor of Ankara, elected in 2019.
Main sights
Ancient/archeological sites
Ankara castle and citadel
At the Monumentum Ancyranum (Temple of Augustus and Rome) in Ulus, the primary intact copy of Res Gestae written by the first Roman emperor Augustus survives.
Roman Baths of Ankara
Ankara CitadelThe foundations of the Ankara castle and citadel were laid by the Galatians on a prominent lava outcrop (39.941°N 32.864°E), and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine.The citadel was depicted in various Turkish banknotes during 1927–1952 and 1983–1989.[65]
Roman TheaterThe remains, the stage, and the backstage of the Roman theater can be seen outside the castle. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. The seating area is still under excavation.
Temple of Augustus and Rome
Main article: Monumentum AncyranumThe Augusteum,[66] now known as the Temple of Augustus and Rome, was built 25 x 20 BC following the conquest of Central Anatolia by the Roman Empire. Ancyra then formed the capital of the new province of Galatia. After the death of Augustus in AD 14, a copy of the text of the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (the Monumentum Ancyranum) was inscribed on the interior of the temple's pronaos in Latin and a Greek translation on an exterior wall of the cella. The temple on the ancient acropolis of Ancyra was enlarged in the 2nd century and converted into a church in the 5th century. It is located in the Ulus quarter of the city. It was subsequently publicized by the Austrian ambassador Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq in the 16th century.
Roman BathsThe Roman Baths of Ankara have all the typical features of a classical Roman bath complex: a frigidarium (cold room), a tepidarium (warm room) and a caldarium (hot room). The baths were built during the reign of the Roman emperor Caracalla in the early 3rd century to honor Asclepios, the God of Medicine. Today, only the basement and first floors remain. It is situated in the Ulus quarter.
Roman RoadThe Roman Road of Ankara or Cardo Maximus was found in 1995 by Turkish archeologist Cevdet Bayburtluoğlu. It is 216 meters (709 feet) long and 6.7 meters (22.0 feet) wide. Many ancient artifacts were discovered during the excavations along the road and most of them are displayed at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations.[67][68]
Column of JulianThe Column of Julian or Julianus, now in the Ulus district, was erected in honor of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate's visit to Ancyra in 362.
Mosques
Kocatepe Mosque
Top: Kocatepe Mosque (1987)
Bottom: Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque (2013)Kocatepe Mosque is the largest mosque in the city. Located in the Kocatepe quarter, it was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in classical Ottoman style with four minarets. Its size and prominent location have made it a landmark for the city.
Ahmet Hamdi Akseki MosqueAhmet Hamdi Akseki Mosque is located near the Presidency of Religious Affairs on the Eskişehir Road. Built in the Turkish neoclassical style, it is one of the largest new mosques in the city, completed and opened in 2013. It can accommodate 6 thousand people during general prayers, and up to 30 thousand people during funeral prayers. The mosque was decorated with Anatolian Seljuk style patterns.[69]
Yeni (Cenab Ahmet) MosqueIt is the largest Ottoman mosque in Ankara and was built by the famous architect Sinan in the 16th century. The mimber (pulpit) and mihrap (prayer niche) are of white marble, and the mosque itself is of Ankara stone, an example of very fine workmanship.
Hacı Bayram Mosque
Hacı Bayram Mosque (1428)This mosque, in the Ulus quarter next to the Temple of Augustus, was built in the early 15th century in Seljuk style by an unknown architect. It was subsequently restored by architect Mimar Sinan in the 16th century, with Kütahya tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of Hacı Bayram-ı Veli, whose tomb is next to the mosque, two years before his death (1427–28).[70] The usable space inside this mosque is 437 m2 (4,704 sq ft) on the first floor and 263 m2 (2,831 sq ft) on the second floor.
Ahi Elvan MosqueIt was founded in the Ulus quarter near the Ankara Citadel and was constructed by the Ahi fraternity during the late 14th and early 15th centuries. The finely carved walnut mimber (pulpit) is of particular interest.[71]
Alâeddin MosqueThe Alâeddin Mosque is the oldest mosque in Ankara. It has a carved walnut mimber, the inscription on which records that the mosque was completed in early AH 574 (which corresponds to the summer of 1178 AD) and was built by the Seljuk prince Muhiddin Mesud Şah (died 1204), the Bey of Ankara, who was the son of the Anatolian Seljuk sultan Kılıç Arslan II (reigned 1156–1192.)
Modern monuments
Victory Monument
Top: Victory Monument (1927)
Bottom: Hittite Sun Course Monument (1978)The Victory Monument (Turkish: Zafer Anıtı) was crafted by Austrian sculptor Heinrich Krippel in 1925 and was erected in 1927 at Ulus Square. The monument is made of marble and bronze and features an equestrian statue of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank Field Marshal.[72]
Statue of AtatürkLocated at Zafer(Victory) Square (Turkish: Zafer Meydanı), the marble and bronze statue was crafted by the renowned Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica in 1927 and depicts a standing Atatürk who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank Field Marshal.
Monument to a Secure, Confident FutureThis monument, located in Güvenpark near Kızılay Square, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: "Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself." (There is debate on whether or not Atatürk actually said "Use your mind"(Turkish: öğün) instead of "Be proud"(Turkish: övün))[73]The monument was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 5 lira banknote of 1937–1952[74] and of the 1000 lira banknotes of 1939–1946.[75]
Hatti MonumentErected in 1978 at Sıhhiye Square, this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti Sun Disc (which was later adopted by the Hittites) and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization. The Hatti Sun Disc has been used in the previous logo of Ankara Metropolitan Municipality. It was also used in the previous logo of the Ministry of Culture & Rahmi M. Koç Museum courtyard has been covered with a glass roof.Suluhan is a historical Inn in Ankara. It is also called the Hasanpaşa Han. It is about 400 meters (1,300 ft) southeast of Ulus Square and situated in the Hacıdoğan neighborhood. According to the vakfiye (inscription) of the building, the Ottoman era han was commissioned by Hasan Pasha, a regional beylerbey, and was constructed between 1508 and 1511, during the final years of the reign of Sultan Bayezid II.[76] There are 102 rooms (now shops) which face the two yards.[77] In each room there is a window, a niche and a chimney.[78]
Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç MuseumÇengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Museum is a museum of industrial technology situated in Çengel Han, an Ottoman era Inn which was completed in 1523, during the early years of the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The exhibits include industrial/technological artifacts from the 1850s onwards. There are also sections about Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey; Vehbi Koç, Rahmi Koç's father and one of the first industrialists of Turkey, and Ankara city.
Shopping
Armada Shopping MallForeign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu (Weavers' Road) near Ulus, where myriad things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found at bargain prices. Bakırcılar Çarşısı (Bazaar of Coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Up the hill to the castle gate, there are many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices, dried fruits, nuts, and other produce.
Atakule Shopping MallModern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay, or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of Karum (named after the ancient Assyrian merchant colonies called Kârum that were established in central Anatolia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC) which is located towards the end of the Avenue; and in Çankaya, the quarter with the highest elevation in the city. Atakule Tower next to Atrium Mall in Çankaya has views over Ankara and also has a revolving restaurant at the top. The symbol of the Armada Shopping Mall is an anchor, and there's a large anchor monument at its entrance, as a reference to the ancient Greek name of the city, Ἄγκυρα (Ánkyra), which means anchor. Likewise, the anchor monument is also related with the Spanish name of the mall, Armada, which means naval fleet.
Söğütözü, AnkaraAs Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities began to rise along the western highway, also known as the Eskişehir Road. The Armada, CEPA and Kentpark malls on the highway, the Galleria, Arcadium and Gordion in Ümitköy, and a huge mall, Real in Bilkent Center, offer North American and European style shopping opportunities (these places can be reached through the Eskişehir Highway.) There is also the newly expanded ANKAmall at the outskirts, on the Istanbul Highway, which houses most of the well-known international brands. This mall is the largest throughout the Ankara region. In 2014, a few more shopping malls were open in Ankara. They are Next Level and Taurus on the Boulevard of Mevlana (also known as Konya Road).
Culture
The arts
Ankara Opera House of the Turkish State Opera and Ballet (1933)
CSO Ada Ankara serves as the Presidential Symphony Orchestra Concert Hall.Turkish State Opera and Ballet, the national directorate of opera and ballet companies of Turkey, has its headquarters in Ankara, and serves the city with three venues: Ankara Opera House (Opera Sahnesi, also known as Büyük Tiyatro) is the largest of the three venues for opera and ballet in Ankara.MusicAnkara is host to five classical music orchestras: Presidential Symphony Orchestra (Turkish Presidential Symphony Orchestra)
Bilkent Symphony Orchestra (BSO) is a major symphony orchestra of Turkey.
Hacettepe Symphony Orchestra was founded in 2003 and directed by Erol Erdinç
Başkent Oda Orkestrası (Chamber Orchestra of the Capital)[79]There are four concert halls in the city: CSO Concert Hall
Bilkent Concert Hall is a performing arts center in Ankara. It is located in the Bilkent University campus.
MEB Şura Salonu (also known as the Festival Hall), It is noted for its tango performances.
Çankaya Çağdaş Sanatlar Merkezi Concert Hall was founded in 1994.The city has been host to several well-established, annual theater, music, film festivals: Ankara International Music Festival, a music festival organized in the Turkish capital presenting classical music and ballet programs.Ankara also has a number of concert venues such as Eskiyeni, IF Performance Hall, Jolly Joker, Kite, Nefes Bar, and Route, which host the live performances and events of popular musicians.
TheaterThe Turkish State Theatres also has its head office in Ankara and runs the following stages in the city: 125. Yıl Çayyolu Sahnesi
Büyük Tiyatro,
Küçük Tiyatro,
Şinasi Sahnesi,
Akün Sahnesi,
Altındağ Tiyatrosu,
İrfan Şahinbaş Atölye Sahnesi,
Oda Tiyatrosu,
Mahir Canova Sahnesi,
Muhsin Ertuğrul Sahnesi.In addition, the city is served by several private theater companies, among which Ankara Sanat Tiyatrosu, who have their own stage in the city center, is a notable example.
MuseumsThere are about 50 museums in the city.
Museum of Anatolian CivilizationsThe Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi) is situated at the entrance of the Ankara Castle. It is an old 15th century bedesten (covered bazaar)[80] that has been restored and now houses a collection of Paleolithic, Neolithic, Hatti, Hittite, Phrygian, Urartian and Roman works as well as a major section dedicated to Lydian treasures.
Anıtkabir
Atatürk's Mausoleum is the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey.Anıtkabir is located on an imposing hill, which forms the Anıttepe quarter of the city, where the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey, stands. Completed in 1953, it is a fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles. An adjacent museum houses a wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and during the establishment of the Republic. Anıtkabir is open every day, while the adjacent museum is open every day except Mondays.
Ankara Ethnography Museum
Ethnography Museum of AnkaraAnkara Ethnography Museum (Etnoğrafya Müzesi) is located opposite to the Ankara Opera House on Talat Paşa Boulevard, in the Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric items, as well as artifacts from the Seljuk and Ottoman periods. In front of the museum building, there is a marble and bronze equestrian statue of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (who wears a Republic era modern military uniform, with the rank Field Marshal) which was crafted in 1927[81] by the renowned Italian sculptor Pietro Canonica.
State Art and Sculpture Museum
State Art and Sculpture MuseumThe State Art and Sculpture Museum (Resim-Heykel Müzesi) which opened to the public in 1980[82] is close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions.
Cer ModernCer Modern is the modern-arts museum of Ankara, inaugurated on 1 April 2010. It is situated in the renovated building of the historic TCDD Cer Atölyeleri, formerly a workshop of the Turkish State Railways. The museum incorporates the largest exhibition hall in Turkey. The museum holds periodic exhibitions of modern and contemporary art as well as hosting other contemporary arts events.
War of Independence Museum
The War of Independence Museum, used as the first Turkish Grand National Assembly buildingThe War of Independence Museum (Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi) is located on Ulus Square. It was originally the first Parliament building (TBMM) of the Republic of Turkey. The War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, wax figures of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit.
Mehmet Akif Literature Museum LibraryThe Mehmet Akif Literature Museum Library is an important literary museum and archive opened in 2011 and dedicated to Mehmet Akif Ersoy (1873–1936), the poet of the Turkish National Anthem.
TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive MuseumThe TCDD Open Air Steam Locomotive Museum is an open-air museum which traces the history of steam locomotives.
Ankara Aviation MuseumAnkara Aviation Museum (Hava Kuvvetleri Müzesi Komutanlığı) is located near the Istanbul Road in Etimesgut. The museum opened to the public in September 1998.[83] It is home to various missiles, avionics, aviation materials and aircraft that have served in the Turkish Air Force (e.g. combat aircraft such as the F-86 Sabre, F-100 Super Sabre, F-102 Delta Dagger, F-104 Starfighter, F-5 Freedom Fighter, F-4 Phantom; and cargo planes such as the Transall C-160.) Also a Hungarian MiG-21, a Pakistani MiG-19, and a Bulgarian MiG-17 are on display at the museum.
METU Science and Technology MuseumThe METU Science and Technology Museum (ODTÜ Bilim ve Teknoloji Müzesi) is located inside the Middle East Technical University campus.
Sports
Ankara Arena (2010)As with all other cities of Turkey, football is the most popular sport in Ankara. The city has two football clubs competing in the Turkish Süper Lig: Ankaragücü, founded in 1910, is the oldest club in Ankara and is associated with Ankara's military arsenal manufacturing company MKE. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1972 and 1981. Gençlerbirliği, founded in 1923, are known as the Ankara Gale or the Poppies because of their colors: red and black. They were the Turkish Cup winners in 1987 and 2001. Gençlerbirliği's B team, Hacettepe S.K. (formerly known as Gençlerbirliği OFTAŞ) played in the Süper Lig but currently plays in the TFF Second League. A fourth team, Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor, played in the Süper Lig until 2010, when they were expelled. The club was reconstituted in 2014 as Osmanlıspor but have since returned to their old identity as Ankaraspor. Ankaraspor currently play in the TFF First League at the Osmanlı Stadium in the Sincan district of Yenikent, outside the city center. Keçiörengücü also currently play in the TFF First League.Ankara has a large number of minor teams, playing at regional levels. In the TFF Second League: Mamak FK in Mamak, Ankara Demirspor in Çankaya, Etimesgut Belediyespor in Etimesgut; in the TFF Third League: Çankaya FK in Keçiören; Altındağspor[84] in Altındağ; in the Amateur League: Turanspor in Etimesgut, Türk Telekomspor owned by the phone company in Yenimahalle, Çubukspor in Çubuk, and Bağlumspor in Keçiören.In the Turkish Basketball League, Ankara is represented by Türk Telekom, whose home is the Ankara Arena, and CASA TED Kolejliler, whose home is the TOBB Sports Hall.Halkbank Ankara is the leading domestic powerhouse in men's volleyball, having won many championships and cups in the Turkish Men's Volleyball League and even the CEV Cup in 2013.Ankara Buz Pateni Sarayı is where the ice skating and ice hockey competitions take place in the city.There are many popular spots for skateboarding which is active in the city since the 1980s. Skaters in Ankara usually meet in the park near the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.The 2012-built THF Sport Hall hosts the Handball Super League and Women's Handball Super League matches scheduled in Ankara.[85]
Parks
Nation's Garden in AnkaraAnkara has many parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: Gençlik Parkı (houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing), the Botanical garden, Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, Kuğulu Park (famous for the swans received as a gift from the Chinese government), Abdi İpekçi Park, Esertepe Parkı, Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), Altınpark (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyarı (claimed to be Biggest Park of Europe inside city borders) and Göksu Park. Dikmen Vadisi (Dikmen Valley) is a 70 hectares (170 acres) park and recreation area situated in Çankaya district.Gençlik Park was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 100 lira banknotes of 1952–1976.[86]
Göksu Park in AnkaraAtatürk Forest Farm and Zoo (Atatürk Orman Çiftliği) is an expansive recreational farming area which houses a zoo, several small agricultural farms, greenhouses, restaurants, a dairy farm and a brewery. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in 1881, in Thessaloniki, Greece. Visitors to the "Çiftlik" (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm such as old-fashioned beer and ice cream, fresh dairy products and meat rolls/kebabs made on charcoal, at a traditional restaurant (Merkez Lokantası, Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered around the farm.
Education
Main article: Education in Ankara
UniversitiesAnkara is noted, within Turkey, for the multitude of universities it is home to. These include the following, several of them being among the most reputable in the country: Ankara University
Atılım University
Başkent University
Bilkent University
Çankaya University
Gazi University
Gülhane Military Medical Academy
Hacettepe University
Middle East Technical University
TED University
TOBB University of Economics and Technology
Turkish Aeronautical Association University
Turkish Military Academy
Turkish National Police Academy
Ufuk University
Yıldırım Beyazıt UniversityFauna
Angora cat
Main article: Turkish Angora
Angora cat with odd eyes (heterochromia), which is common among the AngorasAnkara is home to a world-famous domestic cat breed – the Turkish Angora, called Ankara kedisi (Ankara cat) in Turkish. Turkish Angoras are one of the ancient, naturally occurring cat breeds, having originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia.They mostly have a white, silky, medium to long length coat, no undercoat and a fine bone structure. There seems to be a connection between the Angora Cats and Persians, and the Turkish Angora is also a distant cousin of the Turkish Van. Although they are known for their shimmery white coat, there are more than twenty varieties including black, blue and reddish fur. They come in tabby and tabby-white, along with smoke varieties, and are in every color other than pointed, lavender, and cinnamon (all of which would indicate breeding to an outcross.)Eyes may be blue, green, or amber, or even one blue and one amber or green. The W gene which is responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely related to the hearing ability, and the presence of a blue eye can indicate that the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located. However, a great many blue and odd-eyed white cats have normal hearing, and even deaf cats lead a very normal life if kept indoors.Ears are pointed and large, eyes are almond shaped and the head is massive with a two plane profile. Another characteristic is the tail, which is often kept parallel to the back.
Angora goat
Main article: Angora goat
Angora goatThe Angora goat (Turkish: Ankara keçisi) is a breed of domestic goat that originated in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia.[87]This breed was first mentioned in the time of Moses, roughly in 1500 BC.[88] The first Angora goats were brought to Europe by Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, about 1554, but, like later imports, were not very successful. Angora goats were first introduced in the United States in 1849 by James P. Davis. Seven adult goats were a gift from Sultan Abdülmecid I in appreciation for his services and advice on the raising of cotton.The fleece taken from an Angora goat is called mohair. A single goat produces between five and eight kilograms (11 and 18 pounds) of hair per year. Angoras are shorn twice a year, unlike sheep, which are shorn only once. Angoras have high nutritional requirements due to their rapid hair growth. A poor quality diet will curtail mohair development. The United States, Turkey, and South Africa are the top producers of mohair.For a long period of time, Angora goats were bred for their white coat. In 1998, the Colored Angora Goat Breeders Association was set up to promote breeding of colored Angoras. Today, Angora goats produce white, black (deep black to greys and silver), red (the color fades significantly as the goat gets older), and brownish fiber.Angora goats were depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknotes of 1938–1952.[89]
Angora rabbit
Main article: Angora rabbit
Angora rabbitThe Angora rabbit (Turkish: Ankara tavşanı) is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long, soft hair. The Angora is one of the oldest types of domestic rabbit, originating in Ankara and its surrounding region in central Anatolia, along with the Angora cat and Angora goat. The rabbits were popular pets with French royalty in the mid-18th century, and spread to other parts of Europe by the end of the century. They first appeared in the United States in the early 20th century. They are bred largely for their long Angora wool, which may be removed by shearing, combing, or plucking (gently pulling loose wool).Angoras are bred mainly for their wool because it is silky and soft. They have a humorous appearance, as they oddly resemble a fur ball. Most are calm and docile but should be handled carefully. Grooming is necessary to prevent the fiber from matting and felting on the rabbit. A condition called "wool block" is common in Angora rabbits and should be treated quickly.[90] Sometimes they are shorn in the summer as the long fur can cause the rabbits to overheat.
International relations
See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Turkey
Twin towns and sister citiesAnkara is twinned with:[91] South Korea Seoul, South Korea (since 1971)[92][93]
Pakistan Islamabad, Pakistan (since 1982)[94]
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (since 1984)
China Beijing, China (since 1990)[95]
Jordan Amman, Jordan (since 1992)
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (since 1992)
Hungary Budapest, Hungary (since 1992)
Sudan Khartoum, Sudan (since 1992)
Russia Moscow, Russia (since 1992)
Bulgaria Sofia, Bulgaria (since 1992)
Cuba Havana, Cuba (since 1993)
Ukraine Kyiv, Ukraine (since 1993)
Turkmenistan Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (since 1994)
Kuwait Kuwait City, Kuwait (since 1994)
Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 1994)[96]
Albania Tirana, Albania (since 1995)[97]
Georgia (country) Tbilisi, Georgia (since 1996)[98]
Russia Ufa, Bashkortostan, Russia (since 1997)
Turkey Alanya, Turkey
Romania Bucharest, Romania (since 1998)
Vietnam Hanoi, Vietnam (since 1998)
Bahrain Manama, Bahrain (since 2000)
Somalia Mogadishu, Somalia (since 2000)
Chile Santiago, Chile (since 2000)
Kazakhstan Astana, Kazakhstan (since 2001)
Tajikistan Dushanbe, Tajikistan (since 2003)
Afghanistan Kabul, Afghanistan (since 2003)
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (since 2003)
Egypt Cairo, Egypt (since 2004)
Moldova Chișinău, Moldova (since 2004)[99]
Yemen Sana'a, Yemen (since 2004)
Uzbekistan Tashkent, Uzbekistan (since 2004)
Kosovo Pristina, Kosovo (since 2005)
Russia Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia (since 2005)
Democratic Republic of the Congo Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo (since 2005)
Ethiopia Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (since 2006)
Belarus Minsk, Belarus (since 2007)[100]
Croatia Zagreb, Croatia (since 2008)[101]
Syria Damascus, Syria (since 2010)
Guinea-Bissau Bissau, Guinea-Bissau (since 2011)
United States Washington, D.C., US (since 2011)[102]
Thailand Bangkok, Thailand (since 2012)[103]
Iran Tehran, Iran (since 2013)[104]
Qatar Doha, Qatar (since 2016)[105]
Montenegro Podgorica, Montenegro (since 7 March 2019)
Northern Cyprus North Nicosia, Northern Cyprus
Djibouti Djibouti City, Djibouti (since 2017)[106]Partner cities North Macedonia Skopje, North Macedonia (since 1995)[107]
Austria Vienna, AustriaSee also flagTurkey portal Angora cat
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Basil of Ancyra
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Battle of Ankara
Clement of Ancyra
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History of Ankara
List of hospitals in Ankara Province
List of mayors of Ankara
List of municipalities in Ankara Province
List of districts of Ankara
List of people from Ankara
List of tallest buildings in Ankara
Marcellus of Ancyra
Monumentum Ancyranum
Nilus of Ancyra
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Victory Monument (Ankara)Notesurkey,[a] officially the Republic of Türkiye,[b] is a country mainly in Anatolia in West Asia, with a smaller part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east; Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean Sea (and Cyprus) to the south; and the Aegean Sea, Greece, and Bulgaria to the west. Turkey is home to over 85 million people; most are ethnic Turks, while ethnic Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.[4] Officially a secular state, Turkey has a Muslim-majority population. Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city; Istanbul is its largest city, and its economic and financial center, as well as the largest city in Europe. Other major cities include İzmir, Bursa and Antalya.Human habitation began in the Late Paleolithic.[11] Home to important Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe and some of the earliest farming areas, present-day Turkey was inhabited by various ancient peoples.[12][13][14] Hattians were assimilated by the incoming Anatolian peoples.[15][16] Increasing diversity during Classical Anatolia transitioned into cultural Hellenization following the conquests of Alexander the Great;[17][18] Hellenization continued during the Roman and Byzantine eras.[19][20] The Seljuk Turks began migrating into Anatolia in the 11th century, starting the Turkification process.[20][21] The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into Turkish principalities.[22] Beginning in 1299, the Ottomans united the principalities and expanded; Mehmed II conquered Istanbul in 1453. During the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire became a global power.[23][24] From 1789 onwards, the empire saw major transformation, reforms, and centralization while its territory declined.[25][26]In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in large-scale loss of life and mass migration into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, and Crimea.[27] Under the control of the Three Pashas, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I in 1914, during which the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Greek and Assyrian subjects.[28][29][30] After its defeat, the Ottoman Empire was partitioned.[31] The Turkish War of Independence resulted in the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the signing of the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. The Republic was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, modelled on the reforms initiated by the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II,[32] but was involved in the Korean War. Coups in 1960 and 1980 interrupted the transition to a multi-party system.[33]Turkey is an upper-middle-income and emerging country; its economy is the 18th- or 11th-largest in the world. It is a unitary presidential republic. Turkey is a founding member of the OECD, G20, and Organization of Turkic States. With a geopolitically significant location, Turkey is a regional power[34] and an early member of NATO. An EU-candidate, Turkey is part of the EU Customs Union, CoE, OIC, and TURKSOY. Turkey has coastal plains, a high central plateau, and various mountain ranges; its climate is temperate with harsher conditions in the interior.[35] Home to three biodiversity hotspots,[36] Turkey is prone to frequent earthquakes and is highly vulnerable to climate change.[37][38] Turkey has universal healthcare, growing access to education,[39] and increasing innovativeness.[40] It is a leading TV content exporter.[41] With 21 UNESCO World Heritage sites, 30 UNESCO intangible cultural heritage inscriptions,[42] and a rich and diverse cuisine,[43] Turkey is the fourth most visited country in the world.
Name
Main article: Name of TurkeyThe name Turkey appears in Western sources after the late 11th century, referring to the Seljuk-controlled lands in Anatolia and the Near East.[44] European writers started using Turchia for the Anatolian plateau by the end of the 12th century.[45] The English name Turkey (from Medieval Latin Turchia,Turquia) means "land of the Turks". Middle English usage of Turkye is evidenced in Geoffrey Chaucer's The Book of the Duchess (c. 1369). The modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least 1719.[46] The name Turkey has been used in the texts of numerous international treaties to define the Ottoman Empire.[47][48][49][50]In Byzantine sources, the name Tourkia (Greek: Τουρκία) was used for defining two medieval states: Hungary (Western Tourkia); and Khazaria (Eastern Tourkia).[51][52]With the Treaty of Alexandropol, the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ('Sublime Turkish State') was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.[53]In December 2021, President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan issued a circular, calling for exports to be labeled "Made in Türkiye".[54] The circular also stated that in relation to other governmental communications, the "necessary sensitivity will be shown on the use of the phrase 'Türkiye' instead of phrases such as 'Turkey' (in English)".[54][55] The reason given was that Türkiye "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation in the best way".[54] In May 2022, the Turkish government requested the United Nations and other international organizations to use Türkiye officially in English, which the UN immediately agreed to do.[56][57][58]
History
Main article: History of Turkey
See also: History of Anatolia and History of Thrace
Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace
Main articles: Prehistory of Anatolia and Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
Further information: Hittites
Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were erected as far back as 9600 BC, predating those of Stonehenge by over seven millennia.[59]The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, has been inhabited by modern humans since the late Paleolithic period.[60] The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has been inhabited since at least 40,000 years ago and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by about 6000 BC.[61] The spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly correlated with the migration of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago and was not just a cultural exchange.[62] Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived a significant portion of their ancestry from the Anatolian hunter-gatherers.[63]
The Sphinx Gate of Hattusa, the capital of the Hittites
The Temple of Zeus in the ancient city of Aizanoi in PhrygiaPresent-day Turkey contains some of the world's oldest Neolithic sites.[60] Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made structure in the world, a temple dating to c. 9600 BC,[59] while Çatalhöyük is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in Anatolia, which existed c. 7500 – c. 5700 BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date.[64] The Urfa Man statue is dated c. 9000 BC, to the period of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, and is defined as "the oldest known naturalistic life-sized sculpture of a human".[65] Troy was first settled in the Neolithic Age, with habitation continuing into the Byzantine period. Troy's Late Bronze Age layers are considered potential historical settings for the later legends of the Trojan War.[66][67][68]The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who lived in Anatolia as early as c. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c. 2000 – c. 1700 BC. Various other ancient Anatolian populations have also lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic until the Hellenistic period.[14] Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family.[69] Given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated.[70] The first empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th centuries BC. The Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC[71] although they have remained a minority in the region.[72]Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in c. 695 BC.[73] The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were Lydia, Caria and Lycia.Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (1263–1234 BC) recorded a campaign in which he subdued the entire territory of "Uruatri".[74][75] Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC.[76] Starting from 714 BC, the Urartu state began to decline and finally dissolved in 590 BC when it was conquered by the Medes.[77]
Antiquity
Main articles: Classical Anatolia and Hellenistic period
Further information: Lydia, Lycia, and Caria
The Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, a city named after Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of beauty. In 2017, it was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage Site list.[78]
The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was built by the Romans in 114–117.[79]Before 1200 BC, there were four Greek-speaking settlements in Anatolia, including Miletus.[80] Around 1000 BC, Greek migrations to the west coast of Anatolia began; influence of Greek communities were largely limited to these areas until the time of Alexander the Great.[81][82] These settlements were grouped as Aeolis, Ionia, and Doris, after the specific Greek groups that settled them.[83] Numerous important cities were founded by these colonists, such as Ephesus, Halicarnassus, Pergamon, Aphrodisias, Smyrna (now İzmir) and Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by Greek colonists from Megara in c. 667 BC.[84] Some of these cities, in particular Miletus, went on to found numerous colonies of their own on the coasts of the Black Sea. Miletus was also home to the Ionian school of philosophy, and many of the most prominent pre-Socratic philosophers lived in Miletus. Thales of Miletus is regarded as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition[85][86] and is also historically recognized as the first individual known to have engaged in scientific philosophy.[87][88] Two of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, and the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, were located in Anatolia.[89]The Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of what is now eastern Turkey, began in the 6th century BC. In northwestern Turkey, the most significant tribal group in ancient Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I.[90]All of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the 6th century BC.[91] The Greco-Persian Wars started when the Greek city-states on the coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC. Queen Artemisia I of Halicarnassus, which was then within the Achaemenid satrapy of Caria, fought as an ally of Xerxes I, King of Persia, against the independent Greek city-states during the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC.[92][93]Anatolia fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC,[94] which led to increasing cultural homogeneity and Hellenization in the area,[14] which met resistance in some places.[17] Following Alexander's death in 323 BC, Anatolia was subsequently divided into smaller Hellenistic kingdoms, all of which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[95] Hellenization accelerated under Roman rule, and by the early centuries of the Christian Era the local Anatolian languages and cultures had become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture.[96]From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century AD, large parts of modern-day Turkey were contested between the Romans and neighboring Parthians through the Roman-Parthian Wars.Galatia was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia inhabited by the Celts. The term "Galatians" came to be used by the Greeks for the three Celtic peoples of Anatolia: the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii.[97][98] By the 1st century BC the Celts had become so Hellenized that some Greek writers called them Hellenogalatai.[99] The Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic kingdom, centered in the historical region of Pontus and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty of Persian origin,[100][101][102][103] which may have been directly related to Darius the Great.[104][103] The kingdom was proclaimed by Mithridates I in 281 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Romans in 63 BC. Pontus reached its largest extent under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos. After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars, Pontus was defeated. All ancient regions and territories corresponding to modern Turkey eventually became part of the Roman Empire, and many of them retained their historic names in classical antiquity as Roman provinces.
Early Christian and Roman period
Main article: Christianity in Turkey
Further information: Roman Empire
The Roman Empire at the time of Constantine the Great's death in 337. In 330, Constantinople (now Istanbul) became the new Roman capital.According to the Acts of Apostles,[105] Antioch (now Antakya), a city in southern Turkey, is where the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians". The city quickly became an important center of Christianity.[106][107] The Apostle Paul of Tarsus traveled to Ephesus and stayed there, probably working as a tentmaker.[108] He is claimed to have performed miracles and organized missionary activity in other regions.[109] Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot.[109]According to extrabiblical traditions, the Assumption of Mary took place in Ephesus, where Apostle John was also present. Irenaeus writes of "the church of Ephesus, founded by Paul, with John continuing with them until the times of Trajan."[110] While in Ephesus, Apostle John wrote the three epistles attributed to him. The Basilica of St. John near Ephesus, built by Justinian the Great in the 6th century, marks the burial site of Apostle John, while the nearby House of the Virgin Mary is accepted by the Catholic church as the place where Mary, mother of Jesus, lived the final days of her life before her Assumption. Saint Nicholas, born in Patara, lived in nearby Myra (modern Demre) in Lycia.In 123, Roman emperor Hadrian traveled to Anatolia. Numerous monuments were erected for his arrival, and he met his lover Antinous from Bithynia.[111] Hadrian focused on the Greek revival and built several temples and improved the cities. Cyzicus, Pergamon, Smyrna, Ephesus and Sardes were promoted as regional centres for the Imperial cult during this period.[112]
Byzantine period
Main article: Byzantine Anatolia
See also: Byzantine Empire
The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul) was built by the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian the Great in 532–537.[113]After defeating Licinius (the senior co-emperor (augustus) of the East in Nicomedia) at the Battle of Chrysopolis (Üsküdar) in 324 (thus bringing an end to the Tetrarchy system and becoming the sole emperor), Constantine the Great chose the nearby city of Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire and started rebuilding and expanding the city. In 330 he officially proclaimed it as the new Roman capital with the name New Rome (Nova Roma) but soon afterwards renamed it Constantinople (Constantinopolis, modern Istanbul). Under Constantine, Christianity did not become the official religion of the state, but Christianity enjoyed imperial preference since he supported it with generous privileges.
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 555 under Justinian the Great, at its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476.Theodosius the Great made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380. Following the death of Theodosius in 395 and the permanent division of the Roman Empire between his two sons, Constantinople became the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. This empire, which would later be branded by historians as the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of present-day Turkey until the Late Middle Ages;[114] although the eastern regions remained firmly in Sasanian hands until the 7th century. The frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, a continuation of the centuries-long Roman-Persian Wars, took place between the 4th and 7th centuries.Several ecumenical councils of the early Church were held in cities located in present-day Turkey, including the First Council of Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 (which resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed), the First Council of Constantinople in 381, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon in 451.[115] During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.[116] Established in the Roman period, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is the oldest continuously active institution in Istanbul.[117]
Seljuk and Anatolian beyliks period
Main articles: Seljuk Empire, Sultanate of Rum, and Anatolian beyliks
Further information: Turkic migration
İnce Minareli Medrese in Konya (left), Çifte Minareli Medrese in Erzurum (center) and Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital (right) are among the finest examples of Seljuk architecture.According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia.[118] Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers; they later became nomadic pastoralists.[119] Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranic, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic, and Yeniseian peoples.[120][121][122] During the 9th and 10th centuries CE, the Oghuz were a Turkic group that lived in the Caspian and Aral steppes.[123] Partly due to pressure from the Kipchaks, the Oghuz migrated into Iran and Transoxiana.[123] They mixed with Iranic-speaking groups in the area and converted to Islam.[123] Oghuz Turks were also known as Turkoman.[123]The Seljuks originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who resided in the Yabgu Khaganate.[124] In 1040, the Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and established the Seljuk Empire in Greater Khorasan.[125] Baghdad, the Abbasid Caliphate's capital and center of the Islamic world, was taken by Seljuks in 1055.[126] Given the role Khurasani traditions played in art, culture, and political traditions in the empire, the Seljuk period is described as a mixture of "Turkish, Persian and Islamic influences".[127] In the latter half of the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia.[126] At the time, Anatolia was a diverse and largely Greek-speaking region after previously being Hellenized.[18][20][128]The Seljuk Turks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, and later established the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.[129] During this period, there were also Turkish principalities such as Danishmendids.[130] Seljuk arrival started the Turkification process in Anatolia;[20][131] there were Turkic/Turkish migrations, intermarriages, and conversions into Islam.[132][133] The shift took several centuries and happened gradually.[134][135] Members of Islamic mysticism orders, such as Mevlevi Order, played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia.[136][137] In 13th century, there was a second significant wave of Turkic migration, as people fled Mongol expansion.[138][139] Seljuk sultanate was defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. It was replaced by various Turkish principalities.[22][140]
Ottoman Empire
Main article: Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire at its greatest European extent, in 1683, during the Battle of ViennaBased around Söğüt, Ottoman Beylik was founded by Osman I in the early 14th century.[141] According to Ottoman chroniclers, Osman descended from the Kayı tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[142] Ottomans started annexing the nearby Turkish beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans.[143] Mehmed II completed Ottoman conquest of the Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453.[144] Selim I united Anatolia under Ottoman rule.[23] Turkification continued as Ottomans mixed with various indigenous people in Anatolia and the Balkans.[142]The Ottoman Empire was a global power during the reigns of Selim I and Suleiman the Magnificent.[23][24] In the 16th and 17th centuries, Sephardic Jews moved into Ottoman Empire following their expulsion from Spain.[145] From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the progress that had been made in Western Europe. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 was the first among Muslim states, but was short-lived.[146]
The Süleymaniye Mosque is the largest Ottoman imperial mosque in Istanbul, located on the Third Hill in the city's historical peninsula. The mosque was commissioned by Suleiman the Magnificent and designed by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan.As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875[147] which led to uprisings in the Balkan provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878); many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's heartland in Anatolia,[148][149] along with the Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. According to some estimates, 800,000 Muslim Circassians died during the Circassian genocide in the territory of present-day Russia, the survivors of which sought refuge in the Ottoman Empire, mostly settling in the provinces of present-day Turkey. The decline of the Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence, such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000 lives.[150]Ottoman territories in Europe (Rumelia) were lost in the First Balkan War (1912–1913).[151] Ottomans managed to recover some territory in Europe, such as Edirne, in the Second Balkan War (1913). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction and in the Russian Empire resulted in estimated 5 million deaths,[152][153] with more than 3 million in Balkans;[154] the casualties included Turks.[153] Five to seven or seven to nine million refugees migrated into modern-day Turkey from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea, and Mediterranean islands,[155] shifting the center of the Ottoman Empire to Anatolia.[156] In addition to a small number of Jews, the refugees were overwhelmingly Muslim; they were both Turkish and non-Turkish people, such as Circassians and Crimean Tatars.[157][158] Paul Mojzes has called the Balkan Wars an "unrecognized genocide", where multiple sides were both victims and perpetrators.[159]
Topkapı Palace and Dolmabahçe Palace were the primary residences of the Ottoman sultans in Istanbul between 1465 and 1856[160] and 1856 to 1922,[161] respectively.Following the 1913 coup d'état, the Three Pashas took control of the Ottoman government. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central Powers and was ultimately defeated. During the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of the Armenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000[162] to more than 1 million,[162] or up to 1.5 million[163][164][165] Armenians were killed. The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge[28][166] the events as genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated" from the eastern war zone.[167] Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and Greeks.[168][169][170] Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought the partition of the Ottoman Empire through the 1920 Treaty of Sèvres.[171]
Republic of Türkiye
Main article: History of the Republic of Turkey
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founder and the first President of the Turkish RepublicThe occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath of World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).[172]The Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. The Ankara Government engaged in armed and diplomatic struggle. In 1921–1923, the Armenian, Greek, French, and British armies had been expelled:[173][174][175][176] The military advance and diplomatic success of the Ankara Government resulted in the signing of the Armistice of Mudanya on 11 October 1922. The handling of the Chanak Crisis (September–October 1922) between the United Kingdom and the Ankara Government caused the collapse of David Lloyd George's Ministry on 19 October 1922[177] and political autonomy of Canada from the UK.[178] On 1 November 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule.The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres,[171][172] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the new Turkish state as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire. On 4 October 1923, the Allied occupation of Turkey ended with the withdrawal of the last Allied troops from Istanbul. The Turkish Republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new capital.[179] The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[180]
Anıtkabir in Ankara was completed in 1953 to become the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal AtatürkMustafa Kemal became the republic's first president and introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old religion-based and multi-communal Ottoman monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary republic under a secular constitution.[181] With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Kemal the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk).[172] Atatürk's reforms caused discontent in some Kurdish and Zaza tribes leading to the Sheikh Said rebellion in 1925[182] and the Dersim rebellion in 1937.[183]İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death in 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a referendum. Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II but entered the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945. Later that year, Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations.[184] In 1950 Turkey became a member of the Council of Europe. After fighting as part of the UN forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean.The country's transition to multi-party democracy was interrupted by military coups in 1960 and 1980, as well as by military memorandums in 1971 and 1997.[185][186] Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. Tansu Çiller became the first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993. Turkey entered EU Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with EU in 2005.[187]
Tansu Çiller, Turkey's first female prime minister, attends a European Commission meeting in January 1994In 2014, prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct presidential election.[188] On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust the government.[189] With a referendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive presidential system. The office of the prime minister was abolished, and its powers and duties were transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the Supreme Electoral Council lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.[190] The opposition parties claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.[190]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Turkey
Further information: Regions of Turkey and NUTS of TurkeyTurkey has a unitary structure in terms of public administration, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in Ankara. In province centers the government is represented by the province governors (vali) and in towns by the governors (kaymakam). Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for the mayors (belediye başkanı) who are elected by the constituents.[191] Turkish municipalities have local legislative bodies (belediye meclisi) for decision-making on municipal issues.Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (il or vilayet) for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts (ilçe), for a total of 973 districts.[192] Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions (bölge) and 21 subregions for geographic, demographic and economic measurements, surveys and classifications; this does not refer to an administrative and politics
Main articles: Government of Turkey, Politics of Turkey, and Constitution of Turkey
See also: Law enforcement in Turkey
The Parliament of Turkey
The Grand National Assembly,
the legislative chamber in Ankara
The Presidential Complex
The Presidential Complex, residence and workplace of the President of Turkey
The Court of Cassation
The Court of Cassation is Turkey's supreme court for reviewing verdicts given by courts of criminal and civil justice.Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system.[193] The current constitution was approved by referendum in 1982, which determines the government's structure, lays forth the ideals and standards of the state's conduct, and sets out the state's responsibility to its citizens. Furthermore, the constitution specifies the people's rights and obligations, as well as principles for the delegation and exercise of sovereignty that belongs to the people of Turkey.[194] Turkish politics have become increasingly associated with democratic backsliding, being described as a competitive authoritarian system.[195][196]In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government: national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split between municipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. The government comprises three branches: first is legislative branch, which is Grand National Assembly of Turkey;[197] second is executive branch, which is the President of Turkey;[198] and third is the judicial branch, which includes the Constitutional Court, the Court of Cassation and Court of Jurisdictional Disputes.[199][5]The Parliament has 600 voting members, each representing a constituency for a five-year term. Parliamentary seats are distributed among the provinces proportionally to the population. The president is elected by direct vote and serves a five-year term. The president cannot run for re-election after two terms of five-years, unless the parliament prematurely renews the presidential elections during the second term. Elections for the Parliament and presidential elections are held on the same day. The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 members. A member is elected for a term of 12 years and cannot be re-elected. The members of the Constitutional Court are obliged to retire when they are over the age of 65.[200]
Parties and elections
Main articles: Elections in Turkey, Political parties in Turkey, and Electoral cycle of Turkey
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
PresidentElections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential elections (national), parliamentary elections (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or municipal council members (local) and muhtars (local). Apart from elections, referendums are also held occasionally. Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections. Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934. In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many other countries, which usually stands higher than 80%.[201]The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether.[202][203] The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the votes.[204] Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral threshold.On the right side of the Turkish political spectrum, parties like the Democrat Party, Justice Party, Motherland Party, and Justice and Development Party became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.[205] On the left side of the spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party, Social Democratic Populist Party and Democratic Left Party once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism, Kemalism or secularism.[206]President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, winner of the 2023 presidential election,[207][208] is currently serving as the head of state and head of government. Özgür Özel is the Main Opposition Leader. Numan Kurtulmuş is the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly. The 2023 parliamentary election resulted in the 28th Parliament of Turkey, which had an initial composition of 268 seats for the Justice and Development Party, 169 seats for the Republican People's Party, 61 seats for the Party of Greens and the Left Future, 50 seats for the Nationalist Movement Party, 43 seats for the Good Party, 5 seats for the New Welfare Party and 4 seats for the Workers' Party of Turkey.[209] The next parliamentary election is scheduled to take place in 2028.
Law
Main article: Judicial system of Turkey
Istanbul Justice Palace in the Şişli district on the European side
Istanbul Anadolu Justice Palace in the Kartal district on the Asian sideWith the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on the Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss, German and French legal systems.[210] Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.[211]Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security, the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command.[212] In the years of government by the Justice and Development Party and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of Turkey, because of political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors and in their pursuit of public duty.[213][214][215]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Turkey
Turkey has been in formal accession negotiations with the European Union since 2005.[216][217]In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950. Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the European Union Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[216][217] In a non-binding vote on 13 March 2019, the European Parliament called on the EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citing violations of human rights and the rule of law; but the negotiations, effectively on hold since 2018, remain active as of 2023.[218]The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy has been the country's long-standing strategic alliance with the United States.[219][220] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 enunciated American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece during the Cold War, and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries were included in the Marshall Plan and the OEEC for rebuilding European economies.[221]
Turkey has been a member of NATO since 1952, has its second largest army and is the host of the Allied Land Command headquarters.The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close bilateral relations with the US. Subsequently, Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support, including in key issues such as the country's offer to join the European Union.[222] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.[223]The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey shares a common cultural, historic and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its economic and political relations deep into Central Asia.[224] The International Organization of Turkic Culture (TURKSOY) was established in 1993, and the Organization of Turkic States (OTS) was established in 2009.Under the AKP government, Turkey's economy has grown rapidly and the country's influence has grown in the Middle East based on a strategic depth doctrine, also called Neo-Ottomanism.[225][226]
Members and observers of the Organization of Turkic StatesFollowing the Arab Spring in December 2010, the choices made by the government for supporting certain political opposition groups in the affected countries have led to tensions with some Arab states, such as Turkey's neighbor Syria since the start of the Syrian civil war, and Egypt after the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi.[227][228] As of 2022, Turkey does not have an ambassador in either Syria or Egypt,[229] but relations with both countries have started to relations with Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010 but were normalized following a deal in June 2016.[235] These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East Mediterranean, where large natural gas fields have recently been discovered.[236][237] There is a dispute over Turkey's maritime boundaries with Greece and Cyprus and drilling rights in the eastern Mediterranean.[238][239]After the rapprochement with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its stance regarding the solution of the conflict in Syria.[240][241][242] In January 2018, the Turkish military and the Turkish-backed forces, including the Syrian National Army,[243] began an operation in Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the outlawed PKK)[244][245] from the enclave of Afrin.[246][247] Turkey has also conducted airstrikes in Iraqi Kurdistan which have strained Turkey-Iraq relations as the latter has criticised the strikes for violating its sovereignty and killing article: Turkish Armed Forces
See also: Turkish Land Forces, Turkish Naval Forces, and Turkish Air Force
The TAI TF Kaan is currently being produced by Turkish Aerospace Industries for the Turkish Air Force.[250][251][252]The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the General Staff, the Land Forces, the Naval Forces and the Air Force. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the president. The president is responsible to the Parliament for matters of national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.[253]The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year, dependent on education and job location.[254] Turkey does not recognize conscientious objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[255]
TCG Anadolu (L-400) amphibious assault ship at the Golden Horn.[256][257][258][259] Baykar MIUS Kızılelma is a jet-engined UCAV designed to operate on TCG Anadolu.[256][260][261][262][263]Turkey has the second-largest standing military force in NATO, after the United States, with an estimated strength of 890,700 military personnel as of February 2022.[264] Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands.[265] A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO.[266] The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence abroad,[267] with military bases in Albania,[268] Iraq,[269] Qatar,[270] and Somalia.[271] The country also maintains a force of 36,000 troops in Northern Cyprus since 1974.[272]Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia, Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. It supported coalition forces in the First Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo Force, Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups.[273][274] In recent years, Turkey has assisted Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with security and training.[275][276]
Human rights
Main article: Human rights in Turkey
See also: 2016–present purges in Turkey
Feminist demonstration in Kadıköy, Istanbul, on 29 July 2017The human rights record of Turkey has been the subject of much controversy and international condemnation. Between 1959 and 2011 the European Court of Human Rights made more than 2,400 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations on issues such as Kurdish rights, women's rights, LGBT rights, and media freedom.[277][278] Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to the country's membership of the EU.[279]In the latter half of the 1970s, Turkey suffered from political violence between far-left and far-right militant groups, which culminated in the military coup of 1980.[280] The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK, designated a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United States,[281] and the European Union[282]) was founded in 1978 by a group of Kurdish militants led by Abdullah Öcalan, seeking the foundation of an independent Kurdish state based on Marxist–Leninist ideology.[283] The initial reason given by the PKK for this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey.[284][285] A full-scale insurgency began in 1984, when the PKK announced a Kurdish uprising. With time the PKK modified its demands into equal rights for ethnic Kurds and provincial autonomy within Turkey.[286][287][288][289] Since 1980, the Turkish parliament stripped its members of immunity from prosecution, including 44 deputies most of which from the pro-Kurdish parties.[290]In 2013, widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government dissent.[291] On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101 deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party.[292][293] By 2020, under the pretext of responding to a failed coup attempt in 2016,[294][295] authorities had arrested or imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish citizens.[296] According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged crackdowns on media freedom.[297][298] Many journalists have been arrested using charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state activities".[299][300] In 2020, the CPJ identified 18 jailed journalists in Turkey (including the editorial staff of Cumhuriyet, Turkey's oldest newspaper still in circulation).[301]
LGBT rights
Main article: LGBT rights in Turkey
Istanbul Pride was organized in 2003 for the first time. Since 2015, parades in Istanbul have been denied permission by the government.[302]Homosexual activity has been decriminalized in Turkey since 1858.[303] LGBT people have had the right to seek asylum in Turkey under the Geneva Convention since 1951.[304] However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence.[305] The Turkish authorities have carried out many discriminatory practices.[306][307][308] Despite these, LGBT acceptance in Turkey is growing. In a survey conducted in 2016, 33% of respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.[309][310] A 2015 poll found that 27% of the Turkish public was in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage and 19% supported civil unions instead.[311]When the annual Istanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-majority country to hold a gay pride march.[312] Since 2015, parades at Taksim Square and İstiklal Avenue (where the Gezi Park protests took place) have been denied government permission, citing security concerns, but hundreds of people have defied the ban each year.[302] Critics have claimed that the bans were in fact ideological.[302]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Turkey
See also: List of national parks of Turkey
Topographic map of TurkeyTurkey bridges Southeastern Europe and Western Asia. Asian Turkey, which includes 97% of the country's territory, is separated from European Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles. European Turkey comprises 3% of the country's territory.[313] Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535 square miles),[314] of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 square miles) is in Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,175 square miles) is in Europe.[315] The country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey also contains the Sea of Marmara in the northwest.[316] The geographical centre of all land surfaces on Earth is at 39°00′N 34°00′E, in Kırşehir Province.[317]
Pamukkale in Denizli Province is famous for a carbonate mineral left by the flowing of thermal springs.
The nature sculpted formations of Cappadocia
Lake Salda, a mid-size crater lake in southwestern TurkeyTurkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern Anatolia and the Mediterranean. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian Plateau becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.[316] Pamukkale terraces are made of travertine, a sedimentary rock deposited by mineral water from hot springs. The area is famous for a carbonate mineral left by the flowing of thermal spring water.[318][319]East Thrace, the European portion of Turkey, is located at the easternmost edge of the Balkans. It forms the border between Turkey and its neighbors Greece and Bulgaria. The Asian part of the country mostly consists of the peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south. The Lakes Region contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey such as Lake Beyşehir and Lake Eğirdir.The Eastern Anatolia Region mostly corresponds to the western part of the Armenian highlands (the plateau situated between the Anatolian Plateau in the west and the Lesser Caucasus in the north)[320] and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137 metres (16,854 feet),[321] and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country.[322] Eastern Turkey has a mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern plains of Upper Mesopotamia.Earthquakes happen frequently in Turkey and almost the entire population lives in areas with varying seismic risk levels.[37][323] Anatolian plate is bordered by North Anatolian Fault zone to the north; East Anatolian Fault zone and Bitlis–Zagros collision zone to the east; Hellenic and Cyprus subduction zones to the south; and Aegean extensional zone to the west.[324] After 1999 İzmit and 1999 Düzce earthquakes, North Anatolian Fault zone activity "is considered to be one of the most dangerous natural hazards in Turkey".[325] 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes were the deadliest in contemporary Turkish history.[326] Turkey is sometimes unfavorably compared to Chile, a country with a similar developmental level that is more successful with earthquake articles: Wildlife of Turkey, Fauna of Turkey, and Flora and vegetation of Turkey
See also: Environmental issues in Turkey
Sumela Monastery on the Pontic Mountains, which form an ecoregion with diverse temperate rainforest types, flora and fauna in northern AnatoliaTurkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three Old World continents and the variety of the habitats across its geographical regions have produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.[330] Out of the 36 biodiversity hotspots in the world, Turkey includes 3 of them.[36] These are the Mediterranean, Irano-Anatolian, and Caucasus hotspots.[36]The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle, Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper.[331] The narrow coastal strip between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous forests, which contain some of the world's few temperate rainforests.[332] The Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) is mostly found in Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. The forests of Turkey are home to the Turkey oak. The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus (plane) is the orientalis. Several wild species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century.[333][334]
A white Turkish Angora cat with odd eyes (heterochromia), which is common among the AngorasThere are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and Polonezköy Nature Park.[335] In the 21st century, threats to biodiversity include desertification from climate change in Turkey.[336]The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern regions of Turkey.[337][338] The Eurasian lynx, the European wildcat and the caracal are other felid species which are found in the forests of Turkey. The Caspian tiger, now extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th century.[337][339] Renowned domestic animals from Ankara include the Angora cat, Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Van cat. The national dog breeds are the Kangal (Anatolian Shepherd), Malaklı and Akbaş.[340]
Climate
Main article: Climate of Turkey
Köppen climate types of Turkey[341]The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to cool, wet winters.[342] The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[342] The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the year.[342] The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres (87 in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.[342] The coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet winters.[342]Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter but usually melts in no more than a few days.[342] However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the Mediterranean Sea.[342] Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being even colder. Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian Plateau a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[342]Because of a combination of socioeconomic, population exposure, and climate factors, Turkey is highly vulnerable to climate change.[38]
Economy
Main article: Economy of Turkey
Turkey is expected to have fast economic growth due to demographics and rapid urbanization. The following table is from the OECD Long Term Projections.Turkey is a founding member of the OECD and G20, and is classified among the E7 countries and EAGLEs. It is a newly industrialized country with an upper-middle income economy, which is the 17th-largest in the world by nominal GDP, and the 11th-largest by PPP. According to IMF estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $41,412 in 2023, while its nominal GDP per capita is $11,932.[8] Approximately 11.7% of Turks were at risk of poverty or social exclusion as of 2019.[343] Unemployment in Turkey was 10.4% in 2022.[344] According to the World Bank, the middle class population in Turkey rose from 18% to 41% of the total population between 1993 and 2010.[345]As of October 2021, the foreign currency deposits of the citizens and residents in Turkish banks stood at $234 billion, equivalent to around half of all deposits.[346][347] As of March 2023, the foreign currency reserves of the Turkish Central Bank were $62.6 billion (a 2.3% increase compared to the previous month), its gold reserves were $52.2 billion (a 7.2% increase compared to the previous month), while its official reserve assets stood at $122.4 billion (a 4.3% increase compared to the previous month).[348]
Togg T10S sedan produced by Togg,[349] a Turkish automotive company which manufactures electric vehicles[350][351][352]The EU–Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalization of tariff rates, and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy.[353] Foreign direct investment in Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and dropped to $13.09 billion in 2022.[354]The automotive industry in Turkey is sizeable, and produced 1,352,648 motor vehicles in 2022, ranking as the 13th largest producer in the world.[355] Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers. Togg, or Turkey's Automobile Joint Venture Group Inc., is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. Turkish shipyards are highly regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.[356] Turkish brands like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields.[357][358][359]Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining, petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. According to a Turkish Statistical Institute survey in 2021, which used the available data for 2020, it was estimated that 47% of total disposable income was received by the top 20% of income earners, while the lowest 20% received only 6%.[360] Subsidies which are harmful to health in Turkey include those on sugar[361] and coal.[362]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Turkey
See also: List of World Heritage Sites in Turkey and Tentative list of World Heritage Sites in Turkey
Marmaris harbourTourism has increased almost every year in the 21st century[363] and is an important part of the economy. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism currently promotes tourism under the project Turkey Home. Turkey is one of the world's top five destination countries, with the highest percentage of foreign visitors arriving from Europe; specially Germany and Russia in recent years.[363] In 2022, Turkey ranked fourth in the world in terms of the number of international tourist arrivals with 50.5 million foreign tourists.[364] Turkey has 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites and 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, third most in the world.[365] According to Euromonitor International report, Istanbul is the most visited city in the world, with more than 20.2 million foreign visitors in 2023.[366] Also Antalya has surpassed Paris and New York to become the fourth most visited city in the world, with more than 16.5 million foreign articles: Transport in Turkey, Energy in Turkey, and Renewable energy in Turkey
See also: Communications in Turkey and Water supply and sanitation in Turkey
The main terminal of Istanbul Airport has an annual passenger capacity of 90 million and is the world's largest terminal building under a single roof.In 2013 there were 98 airports,[367] including 22 international airports.[368] Istanbul Airport is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per year.[369][370] Turkish Airlines uses Istanbul Airport, which has a current annual capacity of serving 90 million passengers, as its main hub and several other airlines operate in the country. Turkish Airlines has scheduled services to 315 destinations in 129 countries, making it the largest mainline carrier in the world by number of countries served.[371][372][373]The motorway network spans 3,633 kilometres (2,257 mi) as of 2023,[374] with an expected expansion to 9,312 kilometres (5,786 miles) by 2035.[375] Istanbul Metro is the largest metro network in the country with 495 million annual ridership.[376] Opened in 2013, the Marmaray tunnel under the Bosphorus connects the railway and metro lines of Istanbul's European and Asian sides; while the nearby Eurasia Tunnel provides an undersea road connection for motor vehicles.[377]The Bosphorus Bridge, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge, and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (2016) are the three suspension bridges connecting the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul. The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.[378][379] The Osman Gazi Bridge connects the northern and southern shores of the Gulf of İzmit.
Istanbul Finance Center in Ataşehir districtTurkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains on 12,532 kilometres rail length. The government-owned national railway company started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya line became operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered service in 2014.[380] Konya-Karaman line started its operations in 2022 and 406 km (252 mi) long Ankara-Sivas line opened in 2023.[381]Much energy in Turkey comes from Russia.[382] As of 2018 Turkey consumes 1,700 terawatt hours of primary energy per year, a little over 20 megawatt hours per person, mostly from imported fossil fuels.[383] Although the energy policy includes reducing fossil-fuel imports, coal in Turkey is the largest single reason why greenhouse gas emissions by Turkey amount to 1% of the global total. Renewable energy in Turkey is being increased and the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant is being built on the Mediterranean coast. However, despite the overcapacity in national electricity generation, fossil fuels are still subsidized.[384] In 2019 Turkey had the fourth-highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the world[385] and produced 43.8% of its electricity from renewable sources.[386]Many natural gas pipelines span the country.[193] Blue Stream, a major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, delivers natural gas from Russia as does the undersea pipeline TurkStream.[387] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline is the second longest oil pipeline in the world.[388] As of 2022, almost all gas is imported, but production from the Sakarya gas field, a sweet gas field in the Black Sea discovered by TPAO in 2020,[389] began in 2023,[390] with an estimated peak production of 40 bcm in 2026.[391] As of 2022, the total volume of natural gas discovered in the Black Sea amounted to 710 billion cubic metres (bcm).[392]
Science and technology
Main articles: Science and technology in Turkey, E-Government in Turkey, and Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey
The Presidential Library in Ankara is the largest library in Turkey, with over 4 million printed books and over 120 million electronic editions.[393]Turkey is among the top 50 most innovative countries in the world, ranking 39th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023; this represents a considerable increase since 2011, where it was ranked 65th.[394] TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies.[395] TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[396] TAEK is the country's official nuclear energy institution, focused on academic research and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear technology.[397] It is supervising the construction of Turkey's first nuclear facility, Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant in Mersin, at the cost of $20 billion; the plant became operational in 2023[398] and is projected to meet around 10% of the country's electricity demand.The government invests heavily in research and development of military technologies, including Turkish Aerospace Industries, Aselsan, HAVELSAN, Roketsan, and MKE. Turkey is a global leader in unmanned aerial vehicles; the Bayraktar TB2, manufactured by private defence company Baykar, has been exported to over a dozen countries and played a decisive role in several conflicts, including the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[399][400]In 2013, Turkey initiated the Turkish Space Launch System to develop an independent satellite launch capability[401][402][403] up to an altitude of 550 km (342 mi)[403] with the Roketsan Şimşek-1 rocket by 2027,[403] and the longer range Şimşek-2 by 2028,[403] including the construction of a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles,[402][403] and the establishment of remote Earth Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are the Earth observation satellites of the Turkish Ministry of National Defense, while state-owned Türksat operates the Türksat series of communications satellites.Türksat, the country's sole communications satellite operator, has launched a series of satellites into orbit; likewise, the Turkish Space Systems, Integration and Test Center—a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the TAI—has launched the Göktürk series of Earth observation satellites for reconnaissance; BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific Earth observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute.Turkish Antarctic Research Station is a planned research station in Antarctica. The plan is to build a permanent base for around 50 people, initially operating only during the summer, and later throughout all the year.[407]In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA;[408] he is one of two Turkish Nobel laureates and the first in the sciences. Other prominent Turkish scientists include physician Hulusi Behçet, who discovered Behçet's disease; mathematician Cahit Arf, who defined the Arf invariant; and immunologists Uğur Şahin and Özlem Türeci, whose German biotechnology company, BioNTech, developed one of the first efficacious vaccines against COVID-19.
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Turkey
See also: Turkish people
Istanbul is the most populous city in Turkey[409] and the country's economic and financial center, and also the largest city in Europe.According to the Address-Based Population Recording System, the country's population was 85,372,377 in 2023, excluding Syrians under temporary protection.[7] 93% lived in province and district centers.[7] In 2023, Turkey had an average population density of 111 people per km2.[7] People within the 15–64 age group constituted 68.3% of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponded to 21.4%; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older made up 10.2%.[7] Between 1950 and 2020, Turkey's population more than quadrupled from 20.9 million to 83.6 million;[410] however, the population growth rate was 0.1% in 2023.[7]
Ethnicity
See also: Minorities in Turkey
Percentage of Kurdish population in Turkey by region[411]Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a Turk as anyone who is a citizen.[412] It is estimated that there are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.[413] Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available because census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity after the 1965 Turkish census.[414] According to the World Factbook, 70-75% of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.[4] Based on a survey, KONDA's estimation was 76% in 2006, with 78% of adult citizens self-identifying their ethnic background as Turk.[415] In 2021, 77% of adult citizens identified as such in a survey.[416]Kurds are the largest ethnic minority.[417] Their exact numbers remain disputed,[417] with estimates ranging from 12 to 20% of the population.[418] According to a 1990 study, Kurds made up around 12% of the population.[419] The Kurds make up a majority in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa (47%); and a large minority in Kars (20%).[420] In addition, internal migration has resulted in Kurdish diaspora communities in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest Kurdish population in the world.[421] 19% of adult citizens identified as ethnic Kurds in a survey in 2021.[416] Some people have multiple ethnic identities, such as both Turk and Kurd.[422][423] In 2006, an estimated 2.7 million ethnic Turks and Kurds were related from interethnic marriages.[424]According to the World Factbook, non-Kurdish ethnic minorities are 7–12% of the population.[4] In 2006, KONDA estimated that non-Kurdish and non-Zaza ethnic minorities constituted 8.2% of the population; these were people that gave general descriptions such as Turkish citizen, people with other Turkic backgrounds, Arabs, and others.[415] In 2021, 4% of adult citizens identified as non-ethnic Turk or non-ethnic Kurd in a survey.[416] According to the Constitutional Court, there are only four officially recognized minorities in Turkey: the three non-Muslim minorities recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne (Armenians, Greeks, and Jews[c]) and the Bulgarians.[d][428][429][430] In 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court ruled that the minority provisions of the Lausanne Treaty should also apply to Assyrians in Turkey and the Syriac language.[431][432][433] Other unrecognized ethnic groups include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Pomaks, and Roma.[434][435][436] Turkey is also home to a Muslim community of Megleno-Romanians.[437]
vteLargest cities or towns in Turkey
TÜİK's address-based calculation from December 2017.
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop. 1 Istanbul Istanbul 14,744,519 11 Mersin Mersin 1,005,455 İzmir
İzmir
Bursa
Bursa
2 Ankara Ankara 4,871,884 12 Urfa Şanlıurfa 921,978
3 İzmir İzmir 2,938,546 13 Eskişehir Eskişehir 752,630
4 Bursa Bursa 2,074,799 14 Denizli Denizli 638,989
5 Adana Adana 1,753,337 15 Kahramanmaraş Kahramanmaraş 632,487
6 Gaziantep Gaziantep 1,663,273 16 Samsun Samsun 625,410
7 Antalya Antalya 1,311,471 17 Malatya Malatya 618,831
8 Konya Konya 1,130,222 18 İzmit Kocaeli 570,077
9 Kayseri Kayseri 1,123,611 19 Adapazarı Sakarya 492,027
10 Diyarbakır Diyarbakır 1,047,286 20 Erzurum Erzurum 422,389
Immigration
Main article: Immigration to TurkeyExcluding Syrians under temporary protection, there were 1,570,543 foreign citizens in Turkey in 2023.[7] Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early 2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants.[438] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in the world as of April 2020.[439] The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency manages the refugee crisis in Turkey. Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2 million.[440]In November 2020, there were 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey;[441] these included other ethnic groups of Syria, such as Syrian Kurds[442] and Syrian Turkmens.[443] As of August 2023, the number these refugees was estimated to be 3.3 million. The number of Syrians had decreased by about 200,000 people since the beginning of the year.[444] The government has granted citizenship to 238 thousand Syrians by November 2023.[445] As of May 2023, approximately 96,000 Ukrainian refugees of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine have sought refuge in Turkey.[446] In 2022, nearly 100,000 Russian citizens migrated to Turkey, becoming the first in the list of foreigners who moved to Turkey, meaning an increase of more than 218% from 2021.[447]
Languages
Main article: Languages of Turkey
Turkic languages speaking areasThe official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the world.[448][449] It is spoken by 85%[450][451] to 90%[452] of the population as a first language. Kurdish speakers are the largest linguistic minority.[452] A survey estimated 13% of the population speak Kurdish or Zaza as a first language.[450] Other minority languages include Arabic, Caucasian languages, and Gagauz.[452]The linguistic rights of the officially recognized minorities are de jure recognized and protected for Armenian, Bulgarian, Greek, Hebrew,[e][425][428][429][430] and Syriac.[453][432][433] Endangered languages include Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz, Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino (Judesmo), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek, Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, and Western Armenian.[454] Megleno-Romanian is also spoken.[437]
Religion
Main article: Religion in Turkey
Selimiye Mosque was built by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan.[455] The mosque was included on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2011.[456]Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the constitution provides for freedom of religion and conscience.[457][458] A 2016 survey by Ipsos, interviewing 17,180 adults across 22 countries, found that Islam was the dominant religion in Turkey, adhered to by 82% of the total population; religiously unaffiliated people comprised 13% of the population, while 2% were Christians.[459] The level of religiosity study by Konda found 9.7% of the population who are 'fully devoted', 52% who 'strives to fulfill religious obligations', 34.3% who 'does not fulfill religious obligations' and 3.2% 'Nonbeliever/Irreligious'.[460][461] Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in 2020 interviewed 1,062 people in 12 provinces and found that 28.5% of the Generation Z identify as irreligious.[462][463]According to a survey by the pollster KONDA, the percentage of atheists in Turkey has tripled in 10 years and rose from 1% in 2008 to 3% in 2018, the percentage of non-believers or agnostics rose from 1% to 2%, and that 90% of irreligious Turks were under 35 years old.[464][465][466]The CIA World Factbook reports that Islam is the religion of 99.8% of the population, with Sunni Muslims as the largest sect, while 0.2% are Christians or Jews.[467] However, there are no official governmental statistics specifying the religious beliefs of the Turkish people, nor is religious data recorded in the country's census.[468] Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15 to 20 million, while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation states that there are around 25 million.[469][470] According to Aksiyon magazine, the number of Twelver Shias (excluding Alevis) is three million (4.2%).[471]
There are 234 active churches and chapels in Istanbul,[472] including the Church of St. Anthony of Padua on İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu (Pera).The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from 17.5% (three million followers) in a population of 16 million to 2.5% in the early 20th century.[473] mainly as a result of the Armenian genocide, the population exchange between Greece and Turkey and the emigration of Christians that began in the late 19th century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century.[474][475][476] Today, there are more than 120,000–320,000 people of various Christian denominations,[477] representing less than 0.2% of Turkey's population,[478] including an estimated 80,000 Oriental Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics,[479] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[480] 5,000 Greek Orthodox, smaller numbers of Protestants,[481] and 512 Mormons.[482] Currently, there are 398 churches open for worship in Turkey.[483]Turkey has a small Jewish population;[484] with around 26,000 Jews, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[485] Turkey has the largest Jewish community among the Muslim-majority countries.[486][487]In a mid-2010s poll, 2.9% of Turkish respondents identified as atheists.[488] The Association of Atheism, the first official atheist organization in the Balkans and the Middle East, was founded in 2014.[489][490] Some religious and secular officials have claimed that atheism and deism are growing among Turkish article: Education in Turkey
Istanbul University (1453) was founded by sultan Mehmed II as a Darülfünun. On 1 August 1933, as part of Atatürk's reforms, it was reorganized and became the Republic's first modern university.[495]
Istanbul Technical University is the world's third-oldest technical university.[496]The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[497] This is compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each for primary school, middle school and high school.[498] All 12 years of compulsory education is free of charge in public schools.[499] Basic education is said to lag behind other OECD countries, with significant differences between high and low performers.[500] Access to a high-quality school heavily depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that some students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are ten years old.[500]There are 209 universities in Turkey.[501] Except for the Open Education Faculties at Anadolu, Istanbul and Atatürk universities, entrance is regulated by the national Student Selection and Placement System (Turkish: Öğrenci Seçme ve Yerleştirme Sistemi, ÖSYS) examination, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities according to their performance.[502] According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the top university was the Middle East Technical University, followed by Bilkent University, Koç University, Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University.[503] All state and private universities are under the control of the Higher Education Board (Turkish: Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK). Since 2016, the president of Turkey directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.[504]Turkey is a member of the Socrates programme, Erasmus Programme and Erasmus+ Programmes.[505] Turkey is also a member of the Erasmus Student Network, a student organization with more than 15,000 volunteers across Europe.[506] Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years, with 795,962 foreign students in 2016.[507] The government has announced a plan to draw around 500,000 foreign students at its universities by offering attractive scholarships.[508] In 2021 Türkiye Scholarships, a government-funded program, received 165,000 applications from prospective students in 178 article: Health care in Turkey
Acıbadem Hospital
Modern Başakşehir Çam and Sakura City Hospital in IstanbulThe Ministry of Health has run a universal public healthcare system since 2003.[512] Known as Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on employers, currently at 5%.[512] Public-sector funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.[512] Despite the universal health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.[512] The lower health care expenditure is due to lower median age in Turkey which is 32.4, compared to Italy which is 47.3.[513] Aging population is the prime reason for higher healthcare expenditure in the developed world.[514]Average life expectancy is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81 years.[512] Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value of 30 or above.[515] Air pollution is a major cause of early death.[516]There are many private hospitals in the country. Medical tourism generated revenues of more than $1 billion in 2019.[517] Around 60% of the income has been obtained from plastic surgery and a total of 662,087 patients received service in the country within the scope of health tourism in 2019.[517]
Culture
Main article: Culture of Turkey
See also: Arts in Turkey, Turkish folklore, and Festivals in Turkey
Ortaköy Mosque is an example of the Westernization of Islamic–Ottoman architecture.Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Turkic, Anatolian, Byzantine and Ottoman cultures (the latter was in many aspects a continuation of both the Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) with Western culture and traditions, a process that started with the Westernization of the Ottoman Empire and still continues today.[518][519] This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of the Turks and their culture with those of the peoples they came across during their migration from Central Asia to the West.[518][520] Contemporary Turkish culture during the republican period is a product of efforts to create a "modern" Western society, while maintaining traditional, religious and historical values.[518] The culture has influenced European art and fashion, particularly between the 16th and 18th centuries, during the peak of Ottoman power – a phenomenon that was called Turquerie.
Visual arts
Further information: History of Modern Turkish painting, İznik pottery, and Turkish illumination
Map of Istanbul by the miniature artist Matrakçı NasuhOttoman miniature is linked to the Persian miniature tradition and is likewise influenced by Chinese painting styles and techniques. The words tasvir or nakış were used to define the art of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked in were called nakkaşhane.[521] The understanding of perspective was different from that of the nearby European Renaissance painting tradition, and the scene depicted often included different time periods and spaces in one picture. They followed closely the context of the book they were included in, more illustrations than standalone works of art.[522] Sixteenth-century artists Nakkaş Osman and Matrakçı Nasuh are among the most prominent artists of this era.Turkish painting, in the Western sense, developed actively starting from the mid 19th century. The first painting lessons were scheduled at what is now the Istanbul Technical University (then the Imperial Military Engineering School) in 1793, mostly for technical purposes.[523] In the late 19th century, human figure in the Western sense was being established in Turkish painting, especially with Osman Hamdi Bey. Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha. Other important Turkish painters in the 19th century were Ferik İbrahim Paşa, Osman Nuri Paşa, Şeker Ahmet Paşa, and Hoca Ali Riza.[524]
İznik tiles and Kütahya tiles were used for the interior decorations in Ottoman architecture. Turquoise (meaning "Turkish" in French) and various shades of blue were the most commonly used colors in Ottoman tiles.Carpet (halı) and tapestry (kilim) weaving is a traditional Turkish art form with roots in pre-Islamic times. During its long history, the art and craft of weaving carpets and tapestries in Turkey has integrated numerous cultural traditions. Apart from the Turkic design patterns that are prevalent, traces of Persian and Byzantine patterns can also be detected. There are also similarities with the patterns used in Armenian, Caucasian and Kurdish carpet designs. The arrival of Islam in Central Asia and the development of Islamic art also influenced Turkic patterns in the medieval period. The history of the designs, motifs and ornaments used in Turkish carpets and tapestries thus reflects the political and ethnic history of the Turks and the cultural diversity of Anatolia. However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute a particular design to a specific ethnic, regional, or even nomadic versus village tradition.[525]The earliest examples of paper marbling, called ebru in Turkish, are said to be a copy of the Hâlnâme by the poet Arifî. The text of this manuscript was rendered in a delicate cut paper découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many marbled and decorative paper borders. One early master by the pseudonym of Şebek is mentioned posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the art known as the Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî, which is dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. The instructions for several ebru techniques in the text are accredited to this master. Hatip Mehmed Efendi is accredited with developing motifs and perhaps early floral designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these reports. Despite this, marbled motifs are commonly referred to as hatip designs in Turkey today.[526]
Literature and theatre
Main article: Turkish literature
Nobel-laureate Turkish novelist Orhan Pamuk and his Turkish Angora cat at his personal writing space
Süreyya Opera House is on the Asian side of Istanbul and Atatürk Cultural Center is the main opera house on the European side. Zorlu PSM is the city's largest performing arts theater and concert hall.Interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts.[527] Turkish literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era.[528] The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story. Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namık Kemal also wrote the 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi has written, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between 1896 and 1923.[529]The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet, who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with the Garip movement led by Orhan Veli, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet.The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatized, for example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and interlacing of cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[530]The origin of Turkish theater dates back to ancient pagan rituals and oral legends.[531] The dances, music and songs performed during the rituals of the inhabitants of Anatolia millennia ago are the elements from which the first shows originated. In time, the ancient rituals, myths, legends and stories evolved into theatrical shows. Starting from the 11th-century, the traditions of the Seljuk Turks blended with those of the indigenous peoples of Anatolia and the interaction between diverse cultures paved the way for new plays.[531][532] Meddah were storytellers who performed in front of audiences during the Ottoman period.[531] Karagöz and Hacivat are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during the Ottoman period and then spread to most ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire.After the Tanzimat period, characters in Turkish theatre were modernized and plays were performed on European-style stages, with actors wearing European costumes. Following the restoration of constitutional monarchy with the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, theatrical activities increased and social problems began to be reflected at the theatre as well as in historical plays. A theatrical conservatoire, Darülbedayi-i Osmani (which became the nucleus of the Istanbul City Theatres) was established in 1914. Numerous Turkish playwrights emerged in this era, and the first Turkish musicals were also written. In time, Turkish women began to appear on stage; until then, female roles had only been played by actresses who were members of Turkey's ethnic minorities. Today there are numerous private theatres in the country, together with those which are subsidized by the government, such as the Turkish State Theatres.[533]
Music and dance
Main articles: Turkish folk dance and Music of Turkey
See also: Turkish classical music, Turkish folk music, Turkish music (style), and Turkish Five
Ajda Pekkan is known as "superstar" in the Turkish media. She became a prominent figure of Turkish pop music.
Barış Manço was a Turkish rock musician and one of the founders of the Anatolian rock genre.The roots of traditional music in Turkey span across centuries to a time when the Seljuk Turks migrated to Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization.[534]With the assimilation of immigrants from various regions the diversity of musical genres and musical instrumentation also expanded. Turkey has also seen documented folk music and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic styles of Greek, Armenian, Albanian, Polish and Jewish communities, among others.[535]Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a number of regional musical styles. Despite this however, western music styles like pop music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s. It became popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a result of an opening economy and society. The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Erol Evgin, MFÖ, Tarkan, Sertab Erener, Teoman, Kenan Doğulu, Levent Yüksel and Hande Yener. Internationally acclaimed Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun (founder and president of Atlantic Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev.
Architecture
Main article: Architecture of Turkey
See also: Ottoman architecture
Blue Mosque in Istanbul (1609–1617)
Istanbul Main Post Office in Sirkeci, designed by Vedat Tek (1905–1909)
Şakirin Mosque (2009), the first mosque designed by a womanThe Byzantine era is usually dated from 330 AD at the founding of Constantinople until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East and became the primary progenitor of the Renaissance and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.[536] When the Roman Empire went Christian (as well as eastwards) with Constantinople as its new capital, its architecture became more sensuous and more ambitious. This new style, which would come to be known as Byzantine architecture, with increasingly exotic domes and ever-richer mosaics, spread west to Ravenna and Venice in Italy and as far north as Moscow in Russia.[537] This influence can be seen particularly in the Venetian Gothic architecture.The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture. The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which was the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Ottoman architecture was significantly influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman Sultans for approximately 400 years.[538] Mimar Sinan (c. 1489–1588) was the most important architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least 374 buildings that were constructed in various provinces in the 16th century.[539] Sedefkar Mehmed Ağa, the architect of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, was an apprentice of Sinan, later becoming his first assistant in charge of the office of chief architect.Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Taksim Military Barracks (demolished), Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu, Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of Ottoman Armenian court architects.[540] The Ottoman era waterfront houses (yalı) on the Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles. The First National Architectural Movement in the early 20th century sought to create a new architecture which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture.
Cuisine
Main article: Turkish cuisine
See also: Ottoman cuisine
Turkish coffee with Turkish delight. Turkish coffee is a UNESCO-listed intangible cultural heritage of Turks.[541][542]
Turkish meze be described as a fusion and refinement of Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cousines.Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine,[543][544] which contains elements of Turkish, Byzantine, Balkan, Armenian, Georgian, Kurdish, Arab and Persian cuisines.[543][544][545] It can be described as a fusion and refinement of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Central Asian, Balkan and Eastern European cuisines.[543][544] The country's position between Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean Sea helped the Turks in gaining complete control of the major trade routes, and an ideal landscape and climate allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish cuisine was well established by the mid-15th century, which marked the beginning of the classical age of the Ottoman Empire.Yogurt salads; mezes; fish and seafood; grilled, sauteed or steamed meat varieties; vegetables or stuffed and wrapped vegetables cooked with olive oil; and drinks like sherbet, ayran and rakı became Turkish staples. The empire used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the establishment of the republic in 1923, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and Western fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.[546]
Sports
Main article: Sport in Turkey
See also: Football in Turkey
Turkey at UEFA Euro 2016The most popular sport is association football.[547] Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000.[548] The Turkey national football team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and UEFA Euro 2008.[549]
Turkey has won numerous international accolades, including the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship.Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.[550] The men's national basketball team and women's national basketball team have been successful. Anadolu Efes S.K. is the most successful Turkish basketball club in international competitions.[551][552] Fenerbahçe reached the final of the EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2016, 2017 and 2018), becoming the European champions in 2017.
VakıfBank S.K. is one of the best women's volleyball team in the world, having won the FIVB World Championship four times and the CEV Champions Cup six times.The final of the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[553] The women's national volleyball team has won several medals.[554] Women's volleyball clubs, namely VakıfBank S.K., Fenerbahçe and Eczacıbaşı, have won numerous European championship titles and medals.[555]The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman times.[556] Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since 1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.[557][558] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, oil wrestling champions such as Koca Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both individually and as a national team.[559]
Media and cinema
Main article: Media in Turkey
See also: Cinema of Turkey
Küçük Çamlıca TV Radio Tower in IstanbulHundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations, several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in Turkey.[560][561] The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV, ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite dishes and cable systems are widely available.[562] The Radio and Television Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[562][563] By circulation, the most popular newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.[564]TRT 2 is the public service channel dedicated to culture and art, and TRT Belgesel is dedicated to documentaries. In the 21st century some reforms have taken place to improve the cultural rights of ethnic minorities in Turkey, such as the establishment of TRT Kurdî, TRT Arabi and TRT Avaz by the TRT.Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.[565] After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade, Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South and Central American countries in 2016.[566][567] Turkey is today the world's second largest exporter of television series.[568][569][570]
The closing ceremony of the annual International Antalya Golden Orange Film Festival takes place at the virtually intact Roman theater in Aspendos.[571]Yeşilçam is the sobriquet that refers to the Turkish film art and industry. The first movie exhibited in the Ottoman Empire was the Lumiere Brothers' 1895 film, L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, which was shown in Istanbul in 1896. The first Turkish-made film was a documentary entitled Ayastefanos'taki Rus Aofferesinin Yıkılışı (Demolition of the Russian Monument at San Stefano), directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. The first narrative film, Sedat Simavi's The Spy, was released in 1917. Turkey's first sound film was shown in 1931. Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.[572][573]Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 onwards, with a precipitous decline following the failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016.[574] As of December 2016, at least 81 journalists were imprisoned in Turkey and more than 100 news outlets were closed.[298] Freedom House lists Turkey's media as not free.[575] The media crackdowns also extend to Internet censorship with Wikipedia getting blocked between 29 April 2017 and 15 January 2020.[576][577] The acting president of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye cumhurbaşkanı vekili) is a temporary post provided by the Constitution of Turkey. The acting president is a person who fulfills the duties and powers of the president of Turkey when cases of incapacity and vacancy occur.In cases where the President of Turkey temporarily leaves his office due to illness or going abroad, the oldest Vice President of Turkey shall act for the President and exercise the powers of the President. If the office of the President becomes vacant, the Presidential election is held within 45 days. Until a new one is elected, the Vice President acts as the President and exercises the powers of the President.[1]
HistoryPrior to the 2017 Turkish constitutional referendum, the role of acting president was given to the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Following the outcome of the referendum, the relevant article in the constitution was changed from the Speaker to the Vice President of Turkey.[2]
Constitutional provisions on acting PresidencyArticle 106, Chapter 2: If the presidential office becomes vacant for any reason, the presidential election shall be held within forty-five days. The Deputy President of the Republic of Turkey shall act as and exercise the powers of the President of the Republic until the next President of the Republic is elected. If one year or less remains for the general election, the election for the Grand National Assembly of Turkey shall be renewed together with the presidential election. If more than one year remains for the general election, the President of the Republic of Turkey shall continue to serve until the election date of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. In cases where the President of the Republic is temporarily absent from his/her duties on account of illness or travelling abroad, the deputy president acts as the President of the Republic and exercises his/her powers.[3]ListThe following politicians served as acting presidents.[4]
No Portrait Acting president Term of office Time in office Post President Reason
– Abdülhalik Renda
(1881–1957) 10 November 1938 11 November 1938 1 day Speaker of the Grand National Assembly Mustafa Kemal Atatürk President Atatürk's death while in office
– Tekin Arıburun
(1903–1993) 28 March 1973 6 April 1973 9 days Chairmen of the Senate
Cevdet Sunay The end of Sunay's presidency and the prolongation of the 6th presidential election
– İhsan Sabri Çağlayangil
(1908–1993) 6 April 1980 12 September 1980 159 days Fahri Korutürk The end Korutürk's presidency and the prolongation of the 7th presidential election
– Hüsamettin Cindoruk
(1933–) 17 April 1993 16 May 1993 29 days Speaker of the Grand National Assembly Turgut Özal President Özal's death while in office